SOUTHERN  BRANCH; 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

LOS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN 
IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


NEW  YORK  : 

LEMCKE  &  BUECHNER 
30-32  WEST  27ra  STREET 

LONDON: 

HUMPHREY  MILFORD 
AMEN  CORNER,  E.G. 


IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


ELIJAH  W.  BAGSTER-COLLINS 

Associate  Professor  of  German  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


48590 

Ntto  ¥orfe 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

1916 


All 


COPYRIGHT  1904 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Setup,  electrotyped  and  published,  October,  1904; 

Keprinted,  April,  1907  ;  October,  1908; 

October,  1910 ;  September,  1913 

July,  1915;  June,  1916 


•  -PRESS OF    i  i  ,'    \ 
LANCASTER.  PA. 


TO  JMT  HELPMATE 


PREFACE. 

THE  following  pages  represent  the  outgrowth  of  experi- 
ence in  high  school  work,  of  lectures  given  to  intending 
^teachers,  and  of  a  first-hand  study  of  modern  language  in- 
*  struction  in  various  parts  of  Germany.     The  book  is  planned 
to  give  teachers,  in  book  form,  a  helpful  discussion  of  the 
main  elements  that  go  to  make  up  a  modern  language  course 
in  secondary  schools.     Much  of  the  material  has  long  since 
been   common    property,    perhaps,  but   has   never,  to   my 
W- knowledge,  been  presented  in  so  detailed  a  form,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  "  The  Practical  Study  of  Languages," 
by  Sweet,  which  also  serves  a  different  ^purpose. 

This  book  will  have  to  deal  largely  with  answering  two 
\questions : 

4J     Firstly,  what  is  the  best  work  we  can  hope  to  do  in  a 
<i course  extending  over  a  maximum  period  of  four  years  in 
the  high  school  ? 

Secondly,  what  has  experience  to  teach  us  as  to  the  best 
way  to  do  it? 

We  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage  of  language  teach- 
ing, and  probably  shall  be  for  some  time  to  come.  The 
time  is  not  ripe  for  any  man  to  come  and  say,  and  scien- 
tifically prove,  "  my  method  is  THE  METHOD  of  language 
teaching."  We  still  lack  scientific  data  with  regard  to  the 
mental  processes  involved  in  learning  a  foreign  language. 
Any  exposition  of  method,  then,  will  have  to  be  broad  and 
eclectic  in  nature,  and  derived  very  largely  from  one's  own 

vii 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

experience,  and  from  the  experience  of  other  teachers  of  the 
same  and  different  generations  working  under  similar  condi- 
tions. It  must  consist  in  describing  a  plan  loosely  enough 
jointed  to  work  successfully  under  varying  conditions,  one 
containing  important  points  in  method  the  teacher  should 
keep  in  mind,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  set  this 
forth  in  the  present  book. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION 1 

CHAPTEB        I.    The  Value  of  German 6 

CHAPTER       II.     Aim  of  a  Course 16 

CHAPTEB     m.     Pronunciation 39 

CHAPTEB     IV.     Work  in  Speaking 70 

CHAPTEB       V.     Grammar. 105 

CHAPTEB      VI.     Written  Exercises 137 

CHAPTEB    VII.     Composition 149 

CHAPTEB  VTH.     Reading 162 

CHAPTEB     IX.     Translation 187 

CHAPTEB       X.    Vocabulary 215 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.                                                                    .  223 


ix 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN  IN 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

SOME  definite  work  has  already  been  done  in  the  United 
States  towards  putting  modern  language  instruction  upon  a 
better  basis  as  regards  aim  and  method ;  for  example, 

the  report l  presented    by  the    Committee  of 
Reform  J 

Movement  Twelve,  at  the  session  of  the  Modern  Lan- 
in  u.  s.  A.  guage  Association  held  in  Charlottesville,  Va., 
in  1898.  It  is  an  attempt,  by  way  of  recommendation, 
to  bring  about  some  degree  of  harmony  in  the  rather  chaotic 
conditions  that  naturally  exist  in  a  nation  so  educationally 
decentralized  as  our  own.  Though  brief,  the  report  is  com- 
prehensive and  practical,  and  deserves  the  careful  study  of 
every  modern  language  teacher.  After  dealing  with  the  aim 
and  value  of  modern  languages  as  a  culture  study,  there 
follows  a  brief  sketch  and  critique  of  some  of  the  well-known 
systems  or  methods.  The  report  then  seeks  to  build  up, 
from  this  preliminary  discussion,  a  course  more  or  less  eclectic 
in  method,  to  suit  our  conditions.  Very  valuable  are  the 
suggestions  given  to  teachers,  and  everywhere  the  report  is 
characterized  by  a  wise  conservatism,  so  desirable  in  the 
present  status  of  modern  language  work  in  the  United  States. 

In  this  book  there  will  be  an  attempt  to  enlarge  upon 
some  of  the  points  already  discussed  in  this  report,  more 

1  "  Report  of  Committee  on  Modern  Languages,"  Washington,  1899. 
2  1 


2  THE  TEACHING   OF   GEEMAN. 

especially  by  bringing  to  our  aid  the  best  results  of  recent 
modern  language  teaching  in  Germany.  No 
Movement  country  can  show  such  a  rapid,  and,  in  the 
in  Germany.  maiDj  healthy  development  in  modern  lan- 
guage instruction  during  the  last  generation  as  Germany. 
But  although  the  study  of  the  so-called  "Reform  Move- 
ment" in  Germany  is  extremely  rich  in  valuable  ideas,  it 
will  not  do  to  introduce  the  "  made  in  Germany  "  product  as 
a  whole  into  this  country.  It  must  be  adapted  to  American 
conditions  and  American  ideals  to  bring  about  successful 
results.  We  must  work  out  our  own  school  problem  just 
as  Germany  is  trying  to  do.  Even  there  the  problem  of 
modern  language  teaching  is  yet  unsettled  in  many  essential 
points.  Due  to  good  school  organization,  excellent  equip- 
ment and  personality  on  the  part  of  many  teachers,  however, 
the  work  has  reached,  here  and  there,  a  high  degree  of  effect- 
iveness. Without  going  deeply  into  the  history  of  this  notable 
movement  (which  would  lead  us  too  far  afield,  and  is  not 
essential  to  our  present  purpose)  its  beginning  dates  back, 
roughly  speaking,  to  the  publishing  of  the 
Tandem*"16  anonymous  pamphlet  by  "Quousque  Tan- 
dem "  :  "  Der  Sprachunterricht  muss  umkeh- 
ren!"  l  Sporadic  attempts  had  already  been  made,  of  course, 
in  different  parts  of  Germany,  towards  the  improvement 
of  French  and  English  work  in  the  schools.  Professor 
Victor,  of  Marburg,  who  turned  out  to  be  the  author  of 
this  work,  simply  started  the  ball  rolling  in  this  brief 
philippic,  and  since  that  time,  the  movement  has  increased 
almost  steadily  in  power.  The  ideas  suggested  by  Victor 
1 "  Der  Sprachunterricht  muss  umkehren  ! "  Vie' tor,  Heilbronn,  1881, 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

and  others  were  worked  out  and  tested  with  consid- 
erable success  in  the  schoolroom,  and  were  later  incorporated, 
to  greater  or  less  extent,  in  the  "  Lehrplane  "  of  the  various 
States.  Many  of  the  reformers  have  undoubtedly  gone  too 
far  in  their  zeal.  Every  great  reform  has  its  radical  party. 
But,  on  the  whole,  the  influence  of  the  movement  has  been 
a  sound  and  healthy  one  on  the  rank  and  file  of  modern  lan- 
guage teachers. 

Direktor  Walter  (of  the  Musterschule,  Frankfurt-a-M.) 

gives  in  his  "  Die  Reform  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts 

auf  Schule  und  Universitat," 1  a  good  statement  of  Victor's 

ideas.     He   writes :    "  Nicht    der  tote  Buch- 

"  Das  leb  stabe,  sondern  das  lebende  Wort  solle  in  den 

Vordergrund  treten ;  die  neuere  Sprache  sei 

nicht  an  einzelnen  unzusammenhangenden  Satzen,  sondern 

am  lebensvollen   Sprachstoffe  zu   erlernen  und  durch  das 

Sprechen  und  das  mundliche  Verarbeiten  des  Sprachstoffs 

zum  festen  Eigentum  des  Schiilers  zu  machen. 

"  Die  Grammatik  sei  nicht  mehr  an  erster  Stelle  zu  erlernen, 
sondern  habe  als  Abstraktion  der  Sprache  ihr  gegeniiber 
zuriickzutreten  und  sei  auf  induktivem  Wege  aus  dem 
gewonnenen  Sprachstoffe  abzuleiten.  An  die  Stelle  der 
bisher  iiblichen  Uebersetzungen  aus  der  Muttersprache  in  die 
fremde  Sprache  musse  die  freie  Behandlung  der  Sprache, 
wie  im  Worte,  so  auch  in  der  Schrift  treten. 

"  Vor  allem  zeigt  Victor,  wie  wenig  Wert  man  bisher  auf 
die  Aussprache  der  fremden  lebenden  Sprachen  gelegt  habe, 
ja  wie  diese  nach  einem  Wort  seines  Gesinnungsgenossen 

1  "  Die  Reform  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts  auf  Schule  und  Uni- 
versitat," Walter,  Marburg,  1901. 


4  THE   TEACHING    ^F   GERMAN. 

Professor  Dr.  Trautmann  in  Bonn  zum  grossen  Teil  'grauen- 
voll y  sei,  und  zeigt  uns  den  Weg,  wie  unter  Benutzung  der 
inzwischen  emporgebliihten  jungen  Wissenschaft  der  Phonetik 
eine  genaue  'eutreine  Aussprache  zu  lehren  und  wie  hierbei 
stets  vom  Laut  auszugeheu  sei."  This  also  represents  the 
desires,  in  the  main,  of  the  Reformers  since  the  days  of 
Victor." 

The  newest  element,  perhaps,  is  the  attention  given  to 

pronunciation.     This  work  was  greatly  aided  by  the  recent 

results  in  the  scientific  study  of  phonetics  of  such  men  as 

Sievers,  Techmer,  Trautmann,  Victor,  Sweet 

NCW 

Elements  in  and  Bell.  The  "  method,"  as  represented  by 
tne"  Reform.  ^  ^GQ^  exponents,  owes  its  success  largely, 
however,  to  the  careful  synthesis  and  adaptation  to  pres- 
ent school  needs  —  the  inheritance  of  centuries.  There 
has  been  a  redistribution  of  values,  notably  the  important 
place  given  to  reading  real  texts  and  the  oral  side  of 
language  study,  the  subordinate  place  given  to  grammar, 
and  the  rearranged  method  of  its  study.  The  details  of  the 
system  have  been  worked  out  more  carefully  than  ever  be- 
fore, and  the  various  elements  have  been  harmonized  with 
greater  success  than  has  heretofore  been  attained.  To  be 
sure,  the  success  has  not  been  wholly  due  to  method.  The 
increased  effectiveness  of  the  teaching-body  has  everywhere 
been  an  important  contributing  factor.  Indirectly,  the 
"  method  "  has  brought  this  about  because  of  the  stimulat- 
ing effect  it  has  had  on  the  teachers.  The  "method," 
as  illustrated  in  the  Reform  literature  and  by  its  best  ex- 
ponents, made  extraordinary  demands  upon  the  modern 
language  teacher.  To  meet  the  demands,  it  meant  other 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

ideals  of  training.  It  was  no  longer  sufficient  for  a  teacher 
to  have  gained  a  grammatical  and  reading  knowledge  of  the 
language.  If  the  pupils  were  to  be  taught  to  use  the 
language  in  speaking,  naturally  the  teacher  must  possess  an 
adequate  oral  command  of  that  language.  The  "paper- 
method  "  would  have  died  a  natural  death  if  there  had  not 
been  a  revival,  a  requickened  life,  in  the  study  and  appre- 
ciation of  what  modern  languages  stand  for  in  a  modern  cur- 
riculum, and  earnest  attempts  on  the  part  of  a  large  body  of 
teachers,  particularly  the  younger  teachers,  to  meet  the  new 
demands.  I  consider  the  awakening  to  the  importance  of 
having  well-equipped  teachers  one  of  the  greatest  results  of 
the  Reform  movement. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  VALUE  OF  GERMAN. 

THE  discussion  of  the  value  of  German,  as  a  school  sub- 
ject, naturally  divides  itself  into  three  parts  : 
First,  its  practical  value. 
Second,  its  cultural  value. 
Third,  its  formal  or  disciplinary  value. 
"  We  study  modern  languages  preeminently  because  they 
are  useful  " l  looked  at  from  the  utilitarian  standpoint,  and 
as  a  means  of  opening  our  minds  to  a  literature  and  civili- 
zation, a   knowledge  of  which  the   educated 
American  needs  as  an  essential  part  of  his  intel- 
lectual equipment.     If  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  more  purely  practical  possibilities  inherent  in  our 
subject,  we  might  argue  in  favor  of  it,  by  way  of  comparison 
with  Latin,  as  follows  : 

Whatever  position  Latin  enjoyed  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  a 
spoken  and  written  language,  its  day,  as  such,  has  forever 
passed.     Such  knowledge  is  only  of  value  to  the  Roman 
church,  and  to  a  very  narrow  circle  of  schol- 
Laiiguages         ars>  PernaPs-     The  traveller  and  the  scholar 
no    longer   need    Latin    to  make    themselves 
understood.     In  this  sense  Latin  and  Greek  may  be  said  to 
be  "  dead  "  languages,  as  contrasted  with  the  "  living  "  lan- 
guages of  to-day.       In  another  sense,  of  course,  they  are 

1  "The  Teaching  of  Languages  in  Schools,"  Widgery,  London,  1903. 

6 


THE  VALUE  OP  GEEMAN.  7 

far  from  dead,  for  they  still  live  for  us  in  their  literatures, 
and  in  the  formative  influence  they  undoubtedly  have,  more 
or  less  directly,  on  our  lives  and  ideals.  An  understanding 
of  the  works  that  have  come  down  to  us  seems  to  me,  to- 
day at  least,  to  be  the  natural  aim  of  their  study.  All  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  syntax  of  the  language,  studied  and 
learned,  serve  this  purpose,  namely,  that  the  student  may 
thereby  more  accurately  interpret  Latin  and  Greek  authors. 
All  exercises,  all  writing  of  sentences  and  composition,  all 
oral  work,  would  aim  to  give  the  student  a  firmer  and  surer 
grasp  of  the  technique  of  the  classic  author.  As  for  the 
thought,  it  is  best  secured  by  changing  the  foreign  idiom 
into  one  with  which  the  student  is  familiar,  the  mother- 
tongue.  That  is  the  simplest,  the  quickest,  and  the  surest 
way.  Naturally  this  is  not  by  any  means  the  final  aim, 
which  would  include  many  other  things  —  an  understanding 
and  clear  interpretation  of  the  work  as  a  whole  in  its  pecu- 
liar form,  and  no  good  teaching  would  fall  short  of  this  aim. 

Modern  languages  also  live  in  their  literatures,  but  these 
literatures  are  constantly  changing  and  developing.  Munch, 
in  his  "  Vermischte  Aufsatze,"  l  likens  them  to  a  flowing 
stream,  not^  a  beautiful  lake  whose  shores  are 
Languages.  clearly  defined  to  us,  as  are  the  classical  lan- 
guages to-day.  But  only  half  the  life  of  a 
modern  language  is  represented  by  its  literature.  The 
spoken  language  of  every-day  life,  differing  more  or  less 
from  the  written  language  of  books,  is  another  side  which 
must  receive  due  recognition.  However  strong  may  be  the 
literary  side  of  German,  we  must  not  forget  that  it  is  no 

1 "  Vermischte  Aufsatze,"  Munch,  Berlin,  1896. 


8  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

mere  book  language  —  it  is  the  common  language  of  one  of 
the  greatest  nations  of  modern  times,  a  nation  with  which 
we  are  closely  associated  in  many  ways. 

Commercial  ties  between  Germany  and  the  United  States, 
for  example,  are  a  factor  which  cannot  be  put  aside  without 
comment  in  judging  the  value  of  German  from  the  utilitarian 
standpoint,  and  especially  when  we  come  to 
consider  what  it  is  most  essential  to  emphasize 
in  a  secondary  school  course  in  German.  It  would  only 
be  a  narrow  and  sordid  idea  of  the  function  of  a  subject 
to  regard  it  as  representing  so  much  definite  stock  in 
trade  to  be  turned  later  on  into  so  many  dollars  and  cents. 
The  secondary  school  is  not  meant  to  be  a  place  where 
pupils  can  receive  special  training  in  German  and  French 
to  fit  them  for  a  foreign  clerkship,  still  the  teacher  has  no 
right  to  forget  that  French  and  German  may  come  to  possess 
a  commercial  value  in  the  life  of  the  pupils,  and  should  be 
taught  with  this  end  in  view,  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  conflict 
with  other  results  of  greater  educational  importance. 

Closely  allied  to  the  foregoing  thought  is  the  importance 
that  travel  has,  within  recent  years,  assumed  amongst  Amer- 
icans. No  doubt  one  can  manage  in  these  days  to  travel  all 
over  Europe  and  never  need  more  than  a 
chance  phrase  or  so.  To  reap,  however,  the 
full  educational  benefits  that  undoubtedly  accrue  from 
travelling,  it  is  important  to  have  a  first-hand  knowledge 
of  the  language  of  the  country  you  are  in.  Surely  one 
gets  a  very  distorted  view,  one  quite  out  of  perspective,  of 
foreigners  and  foreign  life,  if  it  is  merely  seen  in  Ameri- 
canized or  Anglicized  hotels.  It  is  far  better  to  be  able 


THE  VALUE   OP  GERMAN.  9 

to  use  even  a  meagre  school  knowledge  of  German  than 
to  be  dependent  upon  a  guide  for  everything.  But  all  the 
advantages  in  travel  that  come  from  previous  study  of  a 
foreign  language,  and  particularly  from  the  power  to  use  the 
language  in  speaking,  are  obvious,  and  I  need  not  dwell 
upon  them.  We  must,  however,  guard  against  over-estimat- 
ing the  educational  value  and  the  importance  of  the  ability 
to  speak,  as  well  as  under-estimating  it.  We  can  deal  with 
this  phase  of  the  question  better  in  the  next  chapter,  in  the 
attempt  to  fix  an  aim  in  planning  a  high  school  course. 

The  scholar  has  long  since  needed  at  least  a  reading  knowl- 

edge of  French  and  German  for  his  necessary  development. 

The  doctor,  the  student  of  art,  of  architecture,  the  engineer, 

the    clergyman    and    men    engaged  in    many 


other  occupations,  are  constantly  finding  out 
that  German  scholars  have  something  to 
offer  them,  something  in  their  particular  field  it  is  essential 
they  should  know.  There  are  many  translations  of  great 
books,  to  be  sure,  but  the  best  books  are  often  not  available 
—  at  any  rate  until  years  after  they  are  wanted.  It  is  idle 
to  suppose  they  ever  will  be.  But  the  importance  of  a 
knowledge  of  German  is  not  confined  to  tlie  scholar  or  the 
progressive  professional  man.  It  is  expected  of  every 
educated  man  that  he  should  understand  the  position  occu- 
pied by  Germany  in  the  civilized  world,  and  there  is  no 
better  way  to  learn  to  appreciate  the  best  that  German  civil- 
ization has  to  offer  us,  than  by  studying  the  German  lan- 
guage and  its  literature.  By  reading  and  absorbing  the  best 
literature  of  our  own  language,  by  interesting  ourselves  in 
all  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  life  of  our  own  race,  we 


10  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

enrich  our  personality.  It  is  simply  going  one  step  farther 
to  absorb  the  mental  life  of  such  great  races  as  the  French 
and  German.  Our  thoughts  are  expanded  and  deepened, 
and  made  more  complete  and  rich.  We  gain  greater  men- 
tal and  critical  balance,  and  greater  appreciation  of  what  our 
own  literature  stands  for,  and,  indirectly,  what  American 
and  German  civilization  stand  for.  After  all,  the  language 
and  literature  represent  the  people  better  than  any  other  one 
aspect  of  their  civilization.  In  studying  German,  then, 
pupils  are  studying  about  Germans  and  Germany.  There  is 
no  one  who  would  dispute  that,  sooner  or  later  in  his  ed- 
ucation, the  individual  should  become  acquainted  with  the 
aims,  customs,  and  peculiar  traits  of  those  civilizations  which 
have  done  so  much  for  humanity.  In  this  way  he  begins 
to  learn  to  take  an  intelligent  interest  in  things  and  events 
outside  his  own  country,  and,  undoubtedly,  the  very  best 
place  to  make  this  beginning  is  in  the  class-room  study  of 
German  and  French. 

Waetzoldt  said  in  an  address  delivered  at  the  fifth  meeting 
of  the  German  modern  language  association  held  at  Berlin 
in  1892: 

"  Ein  dreifaches  Bewusstsein  fordern  wir  von  einem  Gebil- 
deten  :  ein  Volksbewusstsein,  ein  Zeitbewusstsein,  ein  Welt- 
bewusstsein.  Ein  dreifaches  Verstandnis  des  Menschlichen 
What  is  a  so^  nonere  Bildung  dem  Einzelnen  eroffhen, 
Cultured  in  drei  grosse  geistige  Beziehungen  ihn  stellen  : 

zum  Vaterlande,  zur  Antike,  zu  den  mitleben- 
den  Kulturvolkern.  Als  letztes  bewusstes  Glied  einer  Ian- 
gen  Kette  verbindet  der  Lehrer  den  heranwachsenden 
Menschen  mit  diesen  drei  geistigen  Welten.  Die  vaterlan- 


THE  VALUE   OF   GERMAN.  11 

dische  Welt  der  Vergangenheit  und  Gegenwart  eroffnet  ihm 
der  Lehrer  des  Deutschen  und  der  Geschichte,  die  Geistes- 
welt  des  Altertums  der  klassische  Philolog;  der  Leh- 
rer des  Franzosichen  und  Englischen  (Deutschen)  aber 
verbindet  den  Schiller  mit  der  Kulturwelt  der  Gegenwart 
ausserhalb  seines  Vaterlandes,  er  erganzt  die  nationale  Bil- 
dung  zur  Weltbildung ;  er  erzieht  im  Knaben  den  bewussten 
Mitarbeiter  an  den  grossen  gemeinsamen  Aufgaben  der 
Menschheit,  indem  er  mittels  der  fremden  Sprache  und  ihrer 
Werke  ihm  das  freie  Verstandnis  fur  Heimat,  Leben,  und 
Sitte  der  beiden  grbssten  mitlebenden  Volker  zu  erschliessen 
trachtet."  l 

It  is  only  a  small  beginning  we  can  hope  to  make  in  even 
the  best  planned  high  school  course.  If  properly  fostered, 
however,  an  interest  may  be  awakened  within  the  minds  of 
Appreciation  *ne  PUP^S  f°r  the  great  nations  beyond  our 
of  Foreign  own,  which  will  bear  good  fruit  in  their 
later  intellectual  development.  In  the  school 
the  pupil  should  begin  to  learn  that,  however  great  his 
native  country  is,  it  is  impossible  for  it  alone  to  work  out 
the  salvation  of  humanity.  He  should  learn  to  appreciate 
the  good  qualities  of  other  nations,  and  judge  their  weakness 
or  strength  with  some  degree  of  correctness  and  fairness. 
Foreigners  often  criticise  our  civilization  severely,  sometimes 
with  justice,  more  often  unjustly,  through  ignorance.  And 
we  do  the  same  !  Certain  traits  of  character,  habits,  manners, 
peculiar  to  foreigners,  we  condemn  simply  because  we  are 
not  accustomed  to  them.  Much  of  the  enmity  and  dislike 

1 "  Die  Aufgabe  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts  und  die  Vorbildung 
der  Lehrer,"  Waetzoldt,  Berlin,  1892. 


12  THE  TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

between  nations  is  due  to  utter  ignorance  of  each  other  on 
the  part  of  the  masses.  Every  political  action  is  eyed  with 
suspicion  and  distrust,  and  their  very  best  characteristics  are 
misinterpreted  because  misunderstood.  Surely  there  is  a 
great  work  for  modern  languages  and  modern  language 
teachers,  in  battering  down  some  of  the  prejudices  that  exist 
largely  as  a  result  of  generations  of  ignorance. 

The  formal  or  disciplinary  value  of  German  lies  deeper 
than  the  cultural,  and  any  discussion  is  open  to  dispute. 
Everywhere  there  are  quicksands  into  which  one  is  likely  to 

fall  if  one  attempts  to  reduce  the  value  to 
Ff  ^3erman1U  anything  like  a  definite  system.  We  are  in 

need  of  scientific  work,  in  this  special  field, 
by  language  scholars  possessing  the  necessary  equipment  in 
psychology.  A  beginning  has  been  made  by  A.  Ohlert  in 
"  Das  Studium  der  Sprachen  und  die  geistige  Bildung." ' 
These  pages  and  other  works  of  Ohlert,  notably  his  "  Allge- 
meine  Methodik  des  Sprachunterrichts  in  kritischer  Begriin- 
dung," 2  deserve  careful  study  by  those  who  are  interested 
in  the  solution  of  this  perplexing  problem.  Unfortunately 
the  results  obtained  by  him  are  almost  negative,  especially 
when  we  consider  the  great  emphasis  laid  in  the  last  cen- 
tury upon  the  special  mental  training  to  be  derived  from 
foreign  language  study,  particularly  from  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek  grammar.  Since  the  days  of  Pestalozzi,  the 
catch- word  "formale  Bildung"  has  played  a  great  role  in 

1  "  Das  Stadium  der  Sprachen  und  die  geistige  Bildung.  Sammlung 
von  Abhandlungen  aus  dem  Gebiete  der  piidagogischen  Psychologic," 
Ohlert,  2.  Band,  7.  Heft,  Berlin,  1899. 

'"Allgemeine  Methodik  des  Sprachunterrichts  in  kritischer  Begriin- 
dung,"  Ohlert,  Hannover,  1893. 


THE   VALUE   OP   GERMAN.  13 

pedagogy.  When  speaking  the  foreign  language  (here 
Latin)  ceased  to  be  the  chief  practical  aim  of  instruction, 
Latin  grammar  began  more  and  more  to  take  its  place,  more 
especially  as  there  was  nothing  else  to  replace  it.  In  the 
study  of  grammar  pedagogues  came  to  believe  that  they  pos- 
sessed a  universal  means  of  strengthening  the  mind.  The 
mental  gymnastics,  as  practised  on  the  difficult  rules  of  gram- 
mar and  syntax,  and,  particularly,  translations  from  the 
mother-tongue  into  Latin,  were  believed  to  sharpen  the 
pupil's  mind  and  strengthen  his  memory  and  will  power, 
besides  training  in  logical  thinking.  The  theory  of  the  dis- 
ciplinary value  of  foreign  language  study  was  based  upon 
two  assumptions,  both  of  which  are  now  discarded  by  psy- 
chologists as  unsound.  It  was  assumed  in  the  first  place 
that  language,  particularly  Latin,  was  logical  in  its  structure, 
and  hence  offered  material  par  excellence  for  teaching  logical 
thought  and  its  expression.  However,  modern  psychology  ^ 
would  hold  that  languaggjs  primarily  -only  psychological  by 
nature.  Even  if  we  grant  that  Latin  is  excellent  as  a  type 
of  language  and  that  the  pupil  by  studying  it  will  doubtless 
grow  in  intellectual  power,  experience  teaches  us  daily  that 
one  may  have  a  well  disciplined  mind,  and  may  be  a  logical 
thinker  without  having  had  the  unique  training  that  Latin 
was  and  is  still  held  to  give.  Logical  thinking  comes  to  one 
as  the  result  of  the  study  of  the  thought,  and  not  from  study 
of  the  linguistic  form  in  which  the  thought  is  moulded. 
English,  then,  and  the  various  sciences,  can  also  be  made 
effective  instruments  for  sound  training.  Neither  Latin 
nor  the  modern  foreign  language  holds  a  monopoly  as  regards 
"  formale  Bildung." 


14  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

The  second  psychological  fallacy  was  the  belief  that  the 
mind  is  made  up  of  faculties  which  can  be  developed  in 
much  the  same  way  as  we  develop  our  muscles.  Modern 
psychology  admits  that  the  senses  alone  are  capable  of  being 
directly  trained.  The  pianist  can  train  his  sense  of  touch 
or  sound,  the  artist  of  form  or  color,  etc.  We  still  use  the 
terms  memory,  will,  judgment,  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
of  terminology.  They  are,  however,  only  attributes  of  the 
mind,  manifestations  of  our  mental  life.  The  mind  itself  is 
a  unit.  Let  us  take,  for  instance,  reason.  If  we  could  give 
exercises  to  increase  a  general  faculty  of  reasoning,  we  should 
expect  a  man  to  furnish  us  with  sound  judgments  on  any 
subject  we  might  choose.  We  all  know,  however,  that  the 
value  of  a  man's  judgments  depends  upon  the  clearness  and 
sharpness  of  his  concepts  in  a  given  field  of  thought  and  his 
ability  to  analyze  and  utilize  them  well  in  a  particular  case. 
We  might  discuss  memory  and  the  other  so-called  faculties 
of  the  mind  in  much  the  same  way.  In  every  case  we 
should  find  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  training  in  the  old- 
fashioned  sense  at  all. 

Latterly,  one  hears  less  of  making  formal  training,  in  the 
narrow  sense,  a  pedagogical  aim  in  itself,  especially  in  the 
study  of  modern  languages.  Teachers  take  it  for  granted 
that  a  certain  value  lurks  in  every  subject,  if  taught  in 
accordance  with  psychological  laws,  as  we  understand  them, 
without  bothering  much  about  the  peculiar  worth  of  a  par- 
ticular study  judged  from  this  standpoint  alone.  They  seek 
to  find  other  more  positive  reasons  for  the  study  of  modern 
languages,  especially  along  the  lines  social  in  aim.  Briefly, 
what  disciplinary  value  can  we  definitely  ascribe  to  language 


THE   VALUE   OF   GERMAN.  15 

study — in  the  present  case  German  —  in  high  school  work? 
The  study  of  forms  and  syntax,  the  translation  from  and  into 
the  foreign  tongue,  the  acquisition  and  study  of  a  vocabulary, 
all  these  have  a  moulding  influence  on  the  mind.  The  study 
of  a  foreign  language  implies  a  never-ending,  many-sided, 
process  of  comparison  with  the  mother-tongue,  in  thought, 
and  in  expression  of  thought.  Each  nation  has  its  own  . 
peculiar  point  of  view.  It  sees  the  world  without  with  dif-  / 
ferent  eyes,  and  accordingly  emphasizes  different  aspects  in 
its  language.  By  this  constant  exercise  in  comparison,  ideas  / 
take  on  not  only  a  fuller  significance,  but  become  sharper  and 
more  clearly  defined.  It  is  possible  that  little  is  added 
numerically  to  our  ideas,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  what  we 
already  know  is  broadened  and  supplemented  by  fresh  new 
views  and  ways  of  looking  at  things,  and  new  modes  of 
expression.  Moreover,  in  learning  modern  languages  there 
is  another  pedagogical  factor  present :  the  emphasis  laid  upon 
the  spoken  language,  in  the  class-room,  gives  rise  to  exer- 
cises having  a  distinct  value  in  themselves.  The  training  in 
correct  articulation,  in  the  power  to  hear  and  read  accurately 
and  readily,  in  speaking — by  which  the  pupils  gain  flexi- 
bility and  security  in  the  control  of  vocabulary  and  forms, 
all  these  undoubtedly  have  a  decided  pedagogical  value. 


CHAPTER  II. 

AIM   OF  A  COURSE. 

THE  practical  outcome  of  a  school  course  is  the  first  problem 
to  confront  us,  and  hence  it  is  t»f  vital  importance  to  con- 
sider at  the  outset  what  it  is  best  worth  our  while  to  accom- 
plish, before  attempting  to  determine  how  it  is  to  be  accom- 
plished. A  clear  insight  into  what  is  the  most  important  end 
to  be  kept  in  view,  a  separation  of  the  major  from  the  minor, 
a  concentration  of  the  many  lines  of  study  in  planning  a  lan- 
guage course,  these  are  far  from  simple  to  attain,  yet  it  is  only 
by  close  attention  to  these  points  we  can  secure  any  high  grade 
of  efficiency  in  the  work.  And  even  after  having  made,  what 
appears  to  be,  the  best  choice,  the  path  is  not  easy  to  follow. 
There  are  so  many  things  to  be  done,  and  some  are  so  alluring, 
that  it  is  far  too. easy  in  actual  practice  to  become  unbalanced 
as  to  the  relative  value  of  this  or  that  kind  of  work,  and,  in 
so  doing,  to  lose  sight  of  the  ultimate  goal  we  set  out  to  gain. 
The  highest  ideal  knowledge  of  a  foreign  language  would 
mean,  that  one  could  use  it  as  a  second  mother-tongue; 
that  one  could  use  it  with  equal  degree  of  freedom  in  speak- 
ing, reading,  or  writing.  It  is  an  open 
question  whether  one  can  ever  become  abso- 
lutely bi-lingual,  whether  it  is  possible  to 
command  equal  mastery  of  two  sets  of  symbols  to  express 
one's  ideas.  At  any  rate,  a  close  approximation  would  take 
years  of  the  most  strenuous  application,  under  the  most 


AIM   OF   A   COUESE.  17 

favorable   circumstances.      Even    then   the  large   majority 
would  never  accomplish  it,  in  fact,  only  the  most  gifted. 

The  most  favorable  conditions,  obviously,  are  found  in  the 
land  where  the  foreign  language  is  spoken.  But  mere  years 
of  association  with  the  people  is  by  no  means  all.  The 

advantages    of   environment    must,  at    every 
conditions         point,  be  supplemented   by  earnest,   untiring 

effort  after  perfection.  From  residence 
abroad,  there  is  a  downward  scale  of  values  of  conditions 
for  the  acquisition  of  a  foreign  language,  from  study  and 
association  with  a  tutor  who  lives  with  his  charge  (as  sug- 
gested by  Locke  some  centuries  ago),  to  lessons  under  a 
private  teacher.  If  we  confine  the  discussion  to  the  practi- 
cal requirements,  we  must  relegate  the  school  to  a  very  low 
place  in  the  scale,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  such  as 
equipment  of  teacher,  number  of  hours,  etc.,  the  larger  the 
classes,  the  lower  the  chances  of  success.  How  to  teach 
languages  from  books,  and  how  to  overcome  the  seemingly 
insurmountable  difficulties  of  environment,  has  troubled 
thoughtful  pedagogues  for  ages.  Even  in  the  days  when 
Latin  was  the  spoken  language  of  the  world  of  culture,  and 
was  practically  the  only  subject  taught  in  the  schools,  there 
were  constant  complaints  that  the  results  were  far  from 
being  commensurate  with  the  time  expended,  and  so  we  find 
many  methodizers,  Ascham,  Ratke,  Comenius,  and  others 
trying  hard  to  systematize  the  work,  and  increase  the  pupil's 
practical  command  of  Latin.  Those  were  golden  days  for 
practical  results  in  Latin  study,  and  yet  the  obstacles  to  be 
overcome,  and  the  limitations  that  had  to  be  set,  were  not  small, 
if  we  can  judge  from  a  study  of  these  methodizers'  books. 
3 


18  THE   TEACHING   OF    GERMAN. 

It  is  obvious  to  any  one  who  has  had  experience  in  teach- 
ing modern  languages,  or  has  given  thought  to  the  matter, 
that  the  present  day  school  curriculum  does^not  warrant 
teachers   laying  equal    stress  upon    speaking, 
Reading,  reading,  and  writing./    To  attempt  to  carry 

or  writing?       QU^  gucj1  a  g^g,^  under  present    secondary 

school  conditions,  is  to  court  failure.  The  teacher  will  not 
find  time  to  do  any  one  sufficiently  well.  Lest  we  squan- 
der valuable  time  it  will  be  better  to  have  a  clear  idea  of 
relative  values,  and,  as  an  outcome,  to  make  a  careful 
adjustment  of  the  various  kinds  of  .work ;  to  decide  upon 
making(one  thing  the  chief  goal  towards  which  we  strive  ^ 
and  only  to  use  other  forms  wherever  there  will  be  a  dis- 
tinct gain  thereby.  Shall  we  lay  chief  stress  upon  speaking, 
reading,  or  writing?  The  choice  ought  to  be  largely  deter- 
mined by  at  least  these  factors  :  time  and  school  conditions, 
demands  of  society  and  probable  future  use,  and  greatest 
permanent  value  in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  individual. 

After  some  years'  experience,  and  under  tolerably  favor- 
able conditions,  I  am  convinced  that  there  is  time  in  a  sec- 
ondary school  course  of  four  years,  or  even  three,  \to  teach 

pupils  how  to  speak  German  with  a  consid- 
tii  *  chief  Aim  era^e  degree  of  fluency  and  precision,  within 

a  very  limited  field^  We  can  teach  what 
one  might  call,  for  lack  of  a  better  term,  f  travel  talkj 
We  can  expect  to  do  even  more  than  this,  I  feel  warranted 
in  saying.  Given  a  clever,  interesting  teacher,  excellently 
equipped  for  just  this  type  of  work,  and  put  him  in  charge 
of  a  class  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen,  and  the  chances  are  distinctly 


AIM   OF   A   COUESE.  19 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  every  moment  of  the  time  must  be 
utilized  for  oral  exercises,  or  work  intimately  connected  with 
them  and  expressly  meant  to  furtherfa  conversational  readi- 
ness.) There  will  be  little  time  that  can  be  devoted  to  read- 
ing for  reading's  sake.  The  only  Reading  will  be  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  be  capable  of  being  moulded  into  conversa- 
tion, and  the  vocabulary  will  necessarily  be  restricted  to  the 
common  words  of  every-day  life,  for  it  is  only  by  keeping  X^ 
down  the  stock  of  words  and  expressions,  and  by  employing  ^' 
them  almost  daily  in  as  varied  relations  as  the  ingenious 
teacher  can  devise,  that  a  course  in  conversation  can  possibly 
thrive.  )  This  is  the  height  of  utilitarianism  in  the  study  ! 

Again,  if  we  choose  to  send  boys  of  the  high  school  to  a 
business  school,  or  rather,  if  we  make  a  sort  of  business 
course  of  German  instruction  and  teach  pupils  foreign  corre- 
writing  spondence,  I  see  no  reason  to  suppose  that 

the  this  cannot  be  done  equally  successfully  under 

the  same  conditions  as  I  have  mentioned 
above.  In  order  to  learn  how  to  write  there  is  no  need 
to  learn  how  to  speak,  or  to  learn  the  vocabulary  of  every- 
day life.  The  knowledge  of  the  comparatively  narrow 
technical  nomenclature  of  trade,  and  the  necessary  business 
letter  formulas,  are  not  difficult  of  attainment.  Time,  and 
constant  practice,  will  assure  almost  mechanical  accuracy 
and  precision.  Here  too,  all  the  work  must  be  confined 
strictly  to  the  business  field  and  phraseology.  The  ordinary 
German  story  will  be  a  sealed  book  to  the  pupil. 

If  we  choose  reading  as  the  chief  aim  of  modern  language 
study  in  schools,  and  simply  consider  time  and  conditions  of 
school  life,  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  pupil  will  realize  a 


20  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

seemingly  greater  return  for  his  investment  of  energy, 
Reading  *nan  ^7  accentuating  the  other  elements  of  lan- 

the  guage  study,  namely  speaking  and  writing,  for 

reading  merely  requires  receptive  knowledge 
of  vocabulary,  and  very  little  productive  knowledge  even  of 
grammar.  A  productive  knowledge  of  vocabulary  and 
grammar,  of  a  suitable  degree  for  a  speaking  command,  is 
acquired  slowly  and  with  difficulty.  It  means  constant 
repetition  and  practice  within  narrow  confines,  while  a 
reading  knowledge  goes  forward  quickly  and  easily,  running 
as  it  does  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance.  Learning  to 
speak  is  a  complex  process,  compared  with  learning  to  read. 
The  proper  coordination  between  the  physical  and  the  psy- 
chical takes  time  and  care.  The  words  themselves  must 
really  be  alive  before  there  can  be  any  question  of  using  them 
in  speaking,  and  the  usages  of  grammar  and  syntax  must 
have  advanced  from  the  passive  to  the  active  state.  Every 
phase  of  the  study  must  be  quickened,  and  associations  must 
be  so  strong  as  to  have  passed  from  the  stage  of  recognition 
to  the  far  higher  one  of  habit. 

But  aside  from  the  fact  that  a  pupil  seems  to  get  better 
returns  for  the  time  spent  if  reading  is  chosen  as  the  chief 
aim  of  the  study  of  German,  there  is  another  argument  which 

tends  to  confirm  this  view,  namely,  the  cul- 

Why  we  Make 

Reading  the  tural  requirements  of  the  present  age.  Some 
Chief  Aim.  ^ew  centuries  agO)  as  we  have  said,  Latin 

occupied  a  foremost  place  in  the  education  and  life  of  the 
individual.  It  was  necessary  for  the  man  who  was  to  have 
any  standing  in  educated  society  to  acquire  as  perfect  a 
mastery  of  Latin  as  possible,  more  perfect  often  than  he 


AIM  OF  A   COURSE.  21 

possessed  of  his  native  tongue.  The  requirements  of  to-day 
have  shifted.  The  man  of  liberal  education  is  expected  to 
have  studied  Latin  in  the  secondary  school,  and  perhaps 
during  a  part  of  his  college  course,  where  the  most  he  gains 
in  handling  the  language  is  a  more  or  less  ready  reading 
ability,  generally  less  !  In  after  life  he  loses  even  this  power 
through  neglect.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  he  has  once 
studied  the  subject,  but  no  one  questions  the  outcome  of  the 
years  of  study  from  the  practical  linguistic  standpoint.  We 
do  expect,  however,  that  the  educated  man  shall  have  ac- 
quired through  the  study  of  Latin,  some  knowledge  of  Roman 
civilization  and  its  influence  in  the  development  of  the  human  ,/ 
race,  its  connection  with,  and  influence  upon,  modern  life. 
Are  the  social  demands  different  in  the  case  of  German  and 
French  ?  The  most  that  we  expect  of  a  man  of  culture  is, 
that  he  shall  be  able  to  read  these  languages  and  have  some 
knowledge  of  their  literatures,  and  the  place  of  the  nations 
in  modern  civilization.  Anything  beyond  that  (i.  e.,  a 
speaking  knowledge)  is  rather  viewed  in  the  light  of  an 
accomplishment. 

We  expect,  of  course,  that  the  teacher  of  modern  languages 
should  be  able  to  speak  the  language  he  teaches ;  it  is  an 
important  part  of  his  professional  equipment.  Whether  he 
Soeakine  is  an  snou^  teach  his  pupils  the  accomplishment 
Accomplish-  entirely  depends,  as  has  been  said,  upon  the 
relative  values  we  give  to  speaking  and  read- 
ing. The  power  to  speak  a  language,  I  insist,  is  merely  an 
accomplishment,  to  be  compared  in  some  respects  to  the 
ability  to  play  the  piano  or  sing.  It  is  a  very  acceptable 
accomplishment,  no  doubt,  which  most  people  are  proud  to 


22  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

possess!  Tradition,  however,  has  given  a  false  educational 
value  to  the  power  of  speaking  a  language.  We  are  liable 
to  make  the  mistake  and  rate  a  man  or  woman  who  can 
speak  two  or  three  languages  as  better  educated  than  one 
who  can  only  use  his  mother-tongue.  It  would  not  be  diffi- 
cult, however,  to  prove  that  the  practical  linguist  and  the 
educated  man  are  not  always  identical. 

There  is  another  important  consideration,  in  fact  the  weight- 
iest from  the  practical  standpoint,  that  must  be  brought  for- 
ward in  favor  of  reading.  No  one  would  be  so  rash  as  to 
Beading  presume  that  we  could  get  anything  like  a 

forms  thorough   knowledge   of    German   in   school, 

or  anywhere  for  that  matter,  in  two,  three, 
or  possibly  four  years.  We  ought,  then,  to  choose  as  a  basis 
that  element  which  will  potentially  give  the  pupils,  in  later 
life,  the  greatest  pleasure  and  profit.  Countries,  no  doubt, 
differ  widely  in  their  needs  in  the  study  of  modern  languages. 
There  are  countries,  like  Holland  and  Belgium,  so  geograph- 
ically situated  that  a  speaking  command  might  be  as  desirable, 
or  even  more  so,  than  a  reading  one,  in  the  schools.  The 
chances  of  using  and  augmenting  the  oral  proficiency  acquired 
there  are  exceedingly  great.  Here,  in  the  United  States, 
isolated  as  we  are,  practical  conversational  knowledge  is  of 
very  doubtful  value  for  the  rank  and  file,  compared  with  a 
reading  knowledge.  Americans  are  great  travellers,  and 
swarm  all  over  Europe  every  summer,  and  there  are  localities 
in  the  States  themselves  where  the  ability  to  carry  on  a  con- 
versation in  German  would  very  often  come  in  handy,  but, 
after  all,  one  might  safely  say  that  the  large  majority  of  our 
pupils  will  never  have  occasion  to  speak.  Some  few  will 


AIM   OF   A   COURSE.  23 

doubtless  talk  now  and  then,  but  not  often  enough  to  com- 
pensate for  the  time  and  trouble  taken  to  enable  them  to 
talk,  and  the  saddest  part  of  all,  not  often  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  accomplishment  falling  into  decay  through  disuse. 
For  nothing  is  more  elusive  than  the  power  to  control  a 
language  orally.  It  takes  both  a  long  time  and  much 
trouble  to  get  facility  in  expressing  oneself  in  the  foreign 
idiom,  and  yet,  everyone  who  has  acquired  this  technique 
knows  the  result  of  too  little  practice.  But  even  if  we  grant 
that  it  is  not  really  forgotten,  that  it  has  merely  become 
dull,  and  in  a  short  time  with  the  return  of  practice  and  op- 
portunity, it  will  shine  as  brightly  as  ever,  is  it  not  giving  a 
false  value  to  skill  which  can  only  now  and  then  be  used, 
at  indefinite  intervals  dependent  upon  mere  chance  and  cir- 
cumstance ?  It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  opportunities  to 
associate  with  Germans,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  German 
books  can  easily  be  our  companions  as  often  as  we  like, 
Many  pupils,  no  doubt,  will  drop  the  language  entirely  in 
after  life,  still  the  chances  for  keeping  up  a  reading  knowl- 
edge, as  against  a  speaking  one,  are  decidedly  in  favor  of 
the  former.  There  is  no  doubt  that  enough  reading  power 
can  be  gained  in  school  to  make  reading  a  pleasure,  so  that, 
instead  of  falling  into  decay,  the  power  acquired  in  school 
will  improve  from  year  to  year. 

In  spite  of  the  objections  we  have  raised  to  making  an 
oral  command  of  the  language  anything  more  than  a  sub- 
ordinate aim,  compared  with  the  general  aim  —  reading, 
we  must  not  forget  that  conversational  exercises  occupy 
an  important  place  in  modern  language  teaching,  peda- 
gogically  considered.  Although  not  to  be  regarded  as  an 


24  THE   TEACHING    OF    GERMAN. 

end  in  themselves,  they  are  an  indispensable  means  to  an 
end.  Experience  teaches  us  that  a  just  proportion  of  time 
spent  on  oral  exercises  gives  a  firmer  grasp  of 
grammar  an(^  vocabulary.  Indirectly,  too,  we 
appease  our  consciences,  because  we  are  also  lay- 
ing a  good  foundation  for  future  chance  growth  along  purely 
practical  lines.  We  are  doing  the  very  best  for  the  ninety- 
eight  or  ninety-nine  who  will  never  have  occasion  to  use  the 
language  beyond  reading,  and  at  the  same  time,  we  are 
teaching  the  one  or  two,  who  will  have  occasion  to  use  it 
later,  to  master  the  spoken  language.  The  proper  emphasis 
and  correct  teaching  of  conversation  undoubtedly  give  the 
pupil  a  good  start,  and  provide  him  with  right  tendencies, 
whether  he  continues  to  read  the  language  after  he  leaves 
the  secondary  school,  or  develops  the  oral  side.  Further 
discussion  of  how  we  are  to  bring  about  the  desired  result 
belongs  more  directly  to  the  chapter  on  Work  in  Speaking. 
With  recent  years  there  has  been  a  growing  emphasis 
upon  exercises  in  conversation  in  modern  language  school 
work,  notably  in  Germany.  There  the  more  pronounced 
Reformers  have  insisted  that  the  spoken 
language  should  receive  a  large  share  of  atten- 
tion, and  it  would  seem  as  if  speaking  the 
language  were  the  chief  practical  aim  sought,  that  all  other 
lines  of  work  were  either  subordinate  to,  or  were  intended 
to  grow  out  of  the  pupil's  oral  command  of  the  language. 
Instead  of  devoting  the  time  of  the  class  to  reading,  the 
first  years  of  the  course  are  spent,  largely,  in  oral  and 
written  exercises  calculated  to  give  the  pupils  a  firm  grasp 
of  the  spoken  language  within  a  restricted  field.  The  pupil 


AIM   OF   A    COURSE.  25 

learns  to  use  orally,  practically  everything.  There  seems 
to  be  little  reading  for  reading's  sake,  particularly  in  the 
lower  classes.  This  is  the  impression  gathered  from  a  study 
of  the  "  Reform "  literature,  and  confirmed  by  observation 
of  the  work  in  the  schools.  This  is,  however,  not  the  place 
to  discuss  the  question  of  the  importance  of  "  Sprechiibun- 
gen  "  in  German  schools,  a  question  by  co  means  settled  in 
Germany  at  the  present  time.  We  are  face  to  face  with  a 
different  problem  here  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  time  granted  for  the  study  is  four  years  at 
the  most,  and  often  much  less.  To  build  up  a  systematic 
vocabulary  and  knowledge  of  grammar  chiefly  through  oral 
exercises,  to  put  everything  studied  through  the  oral  mill, 
would  leave  us  no  time  for  reading.  As  has  been  truly  said  : 

"  It  postpones  our  reading  to  a  stage  that  is  beyond  our 
secondary  period." l 

Before  the  discussion  of  the  details  of  a  modern  language 
course,  it  is  also  worth  while  to  consider,  briefly  at  least, 
these  three  points  :  the  teacher,  the  pupil,  and  the  class,  with 
regard  to  their  equipment  for  the  work. 

The  foundation  for  modern  language  teaching  lies  in  the 

fitness   of  the   teacher   for  his   work.     He   must  be  well 

equipped  by  knowledge  of  subject,  and  must  possess  the 

right   kind    of    personality.     An    elaborately 

organized  scheme   of    instruction  is  in  itself 

powerless   to  secure    good    results,    if    the    motive   power 

(the   teacher)  is   too    weak    in    every  way  to  carry  it  out, 

except  in  an  inefficient  and  demoralizing  manned.     With 

good  teachers,  on  the  other  hand,  who  know  *ueir  subject 

»"  Report  of  Com.,"  p.  1401. 


26  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

and  are  attractive  to  their  pupils  both  by  breadth  of  culture 
and  sympathetic  personality,  the  solution  of  the  method's 
problem  need  no  longer  cause  much  anxiety.  A  combina- 
tion of  both  qualities  is  indispensable,  and  unfortunately, 
they  are  not  always  found  in  the  same  person. 

Particularly  in  modern  language  work,  a  kind  of  per- 
sonality that  inspires  enthusiasm  is  wanted.     The  teacher 
ought  himself  to   be  very  impressionable  to  German   lit- 
erature and  German  civilization,  and  possess 
Personality. 

the  power  to  arouse  the  interest  of  his  pupils 

for  what  is  best  and  truest.  So  much  depends  upon  the 
teacher's  alertness  of  mind  and  body.  He  must  have 
sharp  ears  and  sharp  eyes,  quick  to  hear  and  see  mis- 
takes, to  diagnose  their  causes,  and  to  correct  them.  With- 
out being  superficial,  the  modern  language  teacher  should  be 
versatile  in  his  work  in  the  class-room.  Essential  details  of 
study,  uninteresting  perhaps  in  themselves,  seem  less  formid- 
able under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher  who  has  the  gift  of  arrang- 
ing the  work  in  a  way  that  inspires  pleasure  and  confidence. 
The  emphasis  given  of  late  years  to  the  oral  side  of  lan- 
guage as  an  important  factor  in  the  course,  and  the  conse- 
quent higher  demands  on  the  teacher  on  the  practical  side, 
brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  question 
for  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  seek 

German.  native-born  Germans   for    teachers  in  secon- 

dary work.  The  American-born  teacher  most  assuredly 
must  not  be  found  wanting  in  practical  knowledge  of  his 
subject,  although  it  is  not  demanded  of  him  that  he  should 
speak  like  a  native  German.  Granted,  however,  that  he  has 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  spoken  language  within  a 


AIM   OF   A   COURSE.  27 

limited  range,  naturally  in  addition  to  the  other  requisites 
stated  below,  the  American  teacher  has  many  important 
advantages  in  his  favor.  Germany  gave  up  the  system  of 
having  "  maitres  des  langues  "  over  a  generation  ago.  One 
of  the  complaints  made  against  the  native  Frenchman  was 
on  the  score  of  discipline,  and  in  England  we  constantly 
hear  criticisms  of  similar  nature  —  the  foreigners  cannot 
control  the  boys.  Certainly  the  inability  to  keep  order,  and 
as  the  natural  outcome,  to  secure  good  work,  are  radical  de- 
fects in  any  teacher.  If  we  try  to  analyze  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  pupils,  why  the  foreigner  often  has  trouble 
with  a  class,  we  shall  find  certain  influences  at  work.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  lacking  a  natural  bond  of  sympathy 
between  the  foreign-born  teacher  and  the  pupils.  He  is  not 
one  of  them,  he  has  been  brought  up  differently,  he  has 
different  manners  of  speech,  of  dress,  of  doing  things,  a 
different  temperament.  All  these  matters  may  be  extremely 
slight,  perhaps  hardly  noticeable  to  the  adult,  but  they  are 
magnified  in  the  mind  of  the  American  boy  or  girl  to  the 
teacher's  disadvantage.  In  the  second  place,  there  is  the 
foreigner's  more  or  less  imperfect  knowledge  of  English,  or 
at  least  imperfect  accent.  This  keeps  him  a  foreigner  in  the 
eyes  of  the  class.  But  apart  from  the  purely  personal  side 
of  the  question,  which  no  doubt  can  easily  be  exaggerated, 
the  inability  to  use  the  English  language  as  his  mother- 
tongue  serves  to  weaken  his  work  in  teaching,  especially  in 
explanations  and  in  correcting  translation,  and  the  latter 
point,  after  all,  plays  a  very  important  r6le  in  modern  lan- 
guage instruction  in  the  United  States.  A  German-born 
teacher  labors  under  a  third  disadvantage.  In  teaching  his 


28  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

mother-tongue  he  is  likely  to  fail  in  getting  the  pupils'  point 
of  view  as  to  its  difficulties.  The  American  who  has  learned 
the  language  himself,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  English  lan- 
guage as  a  starting  point,  can  better  realize  and  better  meet 
the  difficulties  which  the  German  language  presents  to  the 
pupils.  In  learning  German  his  mind  has  worked  along 
similar  lines  to  those  on  which  the  pupils  are  now  working, 
and  accordingly  he  appreciates  more  accurately  the  troubles 
the  boys  and  girls  have  with  the  study.  It  is  difficult 
enough  for  the  teacher  who  has  learnt  the  language  after 
years  of  study,  to  work  down  at  the  pupils'  level ;  how  much 
more  for  a  German  who  never,  at  any  time  in  his  life,  has 
gone  through  the  same  process  of  learning  the  language  he 
is  now  called  upon  to  teach.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  there 
must  be  many  foreigners  who  have  wholly  overcome  these 
disadvantages,  to  which  I  have  alluded,  or  who  have,  in  spite 
of  them,  proved  themselves  most  excellent  teachers.  We 
maintain,  however,  that  the  principle  of  American-born 
teachers,  with  American  ideals,  for  America,  is  the  sound  one, 
as  has  been  proved  in  German-born  teachers  for  Germany. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  has  been  stated,  the  American- 
born  teacher  "  cannot  afford  to  be  vulnerable  in  so  vital  a 
Americ  point  as  the  practical  command  of  the  lan- 

for  guage  in  which  he  has  undertaken  to  give 

German.  instruction."1 

How  the  American  modern  language  teacher  is  to  obtain 
the  requisite  practice  is  a  question  which  cannot  be  dealt 
with  here  at  length.  It  seems  hardly  to  be  expected  that 
colleges  will  give  the  kind  of  training  necessary.  The  large 

1  "  Report  of  Com.,''  p.  1404. 


AIM    OF   A   COURSE.  29 

majority  of  college  courses  are,  and  will  be  perhaps  for  a  long 
Thelr  time  to  come    preeminently  reading   courses, 

college  The   reasons    for   this   are   not   far   to   seek, 

'reparation.  ^  present  many  students  begin  the  study  of 
either  French  or  German  in  college.  It  is  required  work, 
often  dropped  at  the  end  of  a  year.  The  classes  are  large, 
time  is  short,  and  the  pupils  are,  as  a  rule,  too  old  to  do 
easily  the  kind  of  work  demanded  for  even  the  rudiments  of 
an  oral  command  of  the  language.  Moreover,  the  students 
come  from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  have  not  been  uni- 
formly trained  in  their  linguistic  work.  It  is  obviously 
impossible  in  the  second  year  to  build  up  a  speaking  knowl- 
edge upon  such  a  foundation,  even  if  deemed  important.  It 
seems,  however,  that  something  ought  to  be  done  by  way  of 
enabling  pupils  who  come  to  college  well  prepared  in 
reading,  and  with  some  facility  in  speaking,  to  go  on  with 
their  work  in  much  the  same  way.  There  ought  not  to  be 
a  break  in  method  between  the  high  school  and  the  college. 
If  pupils  had  a  course,  such  as  we  propose  to  advocate  in 
this  book,  for  four  years  in  high  school,  and  could  the^  De- 
ceive another  four  years'  training  along  similar  lines  in  col- 
lege, the  chances  of  finding  suitable  material  ready  for  special 
work  in  methods  of  teaching  modern  languages  would  be  far 
greater  than  at  present.  Here  again  lack  of  uniformity  in 
preparation  of  students  presenting  German  for  entrance,  no 
doubt  prescribes  to  a  great  extent  the  kind  of  work  attempted 
in  college  classes.  There  is  also  unfortunately,  a  certain 
tradition  that  college  courses  should  follow  the  lines  laid 
down  in  the  teaching  of  the  classics,  i.  e.,  they  are  almost 
entirely  reading  courses,  for  the  study  of  the  literature. 


30  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

Opportunities  for  increasing  the  oral  command  of  the  lan- 
guage are  offered  in  special  courses,  to  be  sure,  and  in  some 
other  ways  not  necessary  to  specify  here,  but  the  results  of 
these  special  courses  are  weakened  materially  by  the  fact 
that  the  pupils  are  ill  prepared  to  profit  by  them,  either 
because  of  the  insufficient  training  that  they  brought  with 
them  from  the  secondary  school,  or  from  the  lack  of  op- 
portunity, in  a  regular  literary  college  course,  to  do  work 
of  a  colloquial  nature.  The  present  outlook  of  obtaining 
college  graduates  with  a  suitable  practical  command  of  the 
language  is  not  very  hopeful,  unless  they  have  enjoyed 
other  outside  advantages,  such  as  residence  abroad,  foreign 
parentage,  or  opportunity  of  associating  with  foreigners. 

The  work  done  in  the  "  Lehrerinnenseminare "  in  Ger- 
many is  suggestive.  Before  entering,  the  girls  have,  through 
years  of  study  in  the  "  Hohere  Miidchenschulen,"  acquired 
an  excellent  foundation  in  reading,  writing  and 
sPea^ing  the  foreign  tongue.  The  three  years 
spent  in  the  "  Seminar  "  build  upon  this  knowl- 
edge, but  make  it  more  accurate,  and  put  it  upon  a  more 
scientific  basis.  The  method,  in  other  respects,  remains  the 
same,  i.  e.,  in  addition  to  appropriate  work  in  reading,  gram- 
mar, etc.,  the  power  to  speak  also  receives  its  due  share  of 
attention  as  an  organized  part  of  the  course.  At  the  end  of 
the  time,  the  equipment  of  the  young  "  Lehrerin,"  as  far  as 
ability  to  speak  is  concerned,  is  indeed  astonishing.  She 
certainly  puts  the  German  university  student,  who  intends 
teaching  modern  languages,  to  shame. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  two  ways  open.  There 
could  be  special  courses  for  intending  teachers,  either  given 


AIM   OF   A   COUESE.  31 

by  colleges  or  better  by  professional  schools  for  the  train- 
i  IT    in-    ing  of  teachers.    I  mean  subject  matter  courses, 
ing  in  the  one  important  object  of  which  is  to  further 

United  states.  ^e  speaking  knowledge  of  the  prospective 
teachers.  In  other  words,  if  it  is  not  feasible  to  include  oral 
exercises  in  the  regular  literary  courses,  special  parallel 
courses  running  through  the  whole  four  years  ought  to  find 
a  legitimate  place  in  college  announcements  ;  courses  where, 
in  every  lesson,  the  opportunity  is  given  to  use  the  foreign 
tongue  in  speaking,  along  the  same  lines  as  will  be  advo- 
cated in  this  book.  It  might  be  even  possible  to  have 
special  sections  which  shall  contain  graded  students  who 
have  already  gained  some  facility  in  handling  the  spoken 
language  and  who  wish  to  increase  it.  If  it  can  be  clearly 
shown  that  work  in  speaking  is  a  means  of  better  under- 
standing the  language  and  literature  in  high  school,  I  see 
nothing  derogatory  in  employing  the  same  method  in  col- 
lege classes,  if  not  in  the  regular  courses,  then  in  special 
ones.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  even  a  high  school  course 
in  which  speaking  received  due  recognition,  plus  four  years 
along  the  same  general  lines  in  college,  will  be  sufficient 
preparation  for  teaching.  The  student  must  take  every 
advantage  he  can  of  using  the  language,  either  in  other  more 
purely  conversational  courses,  or  outside  college.  Still 
eight  years,  or  even  six  years,  of  training  will  give  the 
student  a  good  start,  and  equip  him  better  to  do  the  more 
technical  work  in  teaching,  such  as  given  at  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University. 

In  spite  of  the  sacrifice  it  often  means  to  spend  six  months 
or  a  year  in  Germany,  no  teacher  can  be  said  to  be  well 


32  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

equippe*'    *6r  the    work  of  teaching  German  who  has  not 
don»,    so.     It    is   not   by  what   one  gains   in 
AbroaT"          one's  practical  command  of  the  language  that 
one  alone  is  benefited  ;  we  learn  also  about  the 
people  firsl  band.     The  time  spent  among  the  people  them- 
selves must  .assuredly  have  a  most  stimulating  effect  on  our 
knowledge  of  German,  and   this  new  light  that  we  have 
received  will  certainly  be  reflected  to   the  benefit  of  our 
pupils. 

In   passing,  a  word  about  the  various  summer  courses 
given  at  the  German  Universities  of  Marburg,  Jena,  and 
Greifswald.     In  addition  to  the  lectures,  sometimes  of  excel- 
lent value,  one   has  abundant  opportunity  to 
Summer  * 

Courses  speak  German  by  living  in  an  educated  fam- 

rmany.       jj^      ijj^  grea^es^  gOO(J  that  I  got  personally, 

however,  was  from  associating  with  teachers  from  a  large 
number  of  different  countries  —  from  Holland,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, France,  England,  Scotland,  Russia,  as  well  as  from 
other  parts  of  America  and  Germany.  They  did  not  always 
speak  German  with  the  accuracy  or  fluency  to  be  desired, 
still  the  exchange  of  ideas  on  teaching  was  most  valuable. 

A  teacher  should  certainly  not  be  wanting  in  a  practical 
command  of  the  language,  augmented,  if  possible,  by  resi- 
dence abroad,  and  it  goes  without  saying  he  should  be  a 
man  of  broad,  liberal  culture  and  natural  refine- 
Further  ment.     These  qualifications  by  no  means  ex- 
haust the  list  of  fundamental  requirements.    He 
should  have  received  considerable  linguistic  training  in  other 
languages,  indeed  Latin  and  Greek  and  a  good  knowledge 
of  French  are  very  important. 


AIM   OP   A   COUESE.  33 

With  regard  to  his  own  special  field,  he  should  thoroughly 
have  studied  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  German 
language,  its  relation  to  other  members  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
group,  and  have  a  reading  acquaintance  with 
pmioiogicai  some  of  the  more  important  branches.  He 
should  possess  a  knowledge  of  the  literature 
such  as  comes  from  a  first-hand  study  of  the  important 
works  in  the  different  periods,  from  Gothic,  downwards 
through  the  centuries.  He  should  have  read  widely,  and 
studied  carefully,  the  more  modern  periods.  A  knowledge 
of  phonetics  is  also  essential,  both  as  an  aid  to  his  philological 
studies  and  as  a  preparation  for  actual  teaching.  Every  teacher 
should  not  only  know  what  constitutes  a  good  pronunciation, 
but  also  how  the  various  speech-sounds  are  produced.  For 
further  discussion  see  chapter  on  Pronunciation,  p.  39. 

Leaving   purely  linguistic  studies,  the  teacher  ought  to 
have  a  good  knowledge  of  German  history,  and  have  read 
other  books  with  the  idea  of  gaining  a  clear  insight  into 
German  civilization.     Especially  the  modern 
development  of  Germany  into  a  great  empire 
should   receive   a   great    share   of    attention. 
Residence  abroad,  and  trips  now  and  then,  with  the  help  of 
books,  will  serve  to  give  and  keep  alive  such  knowledge 
of    German  characteristics  and  customs.     From  the  stand- 
point of  method  the  teacher  surely  ought  to  have,  in  addition 
to  a  general  knowledge  of  pedagogy,  a  special  knowledge  of 
methods  of  teaching  languages  from  the  historical  standpoint, 
and  an  interest  in  general  methodological  discussion. 

As  for  the  pupil,  his  previous  training  in  English,  as  a 
factor  in  the  study  of  German,  I  also  wish  to  suggest  in  this 
4 


34  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

connection.     In  the  days  of  the  "  old  humanism,"  the  boy 
began  Latin  after  he  had  acquired  a  very  rudi- 
Tne"0id  mentary   vocabulary    and   knowledge   of    his 

Humanism."  mother-tongue.  Teachers  did  not  take  this 
knowledge  of  the  mother-tongue  into  consideration ;  on  the 
contrary,  Latin  became  of  first  importance  from  the  outset, 
and  the  vernacular  was  kept  in  the  background  as  something 
unworthy  of  study.  To-day,  with  other  educational  ideals, 
foreign  language  study  has  lost  its  prestige,  and  the  study 
of  the  mother-tongue  has  been  gradually  coming  into  its  right- 
ful inheritance.  But  it  should  play  the  most  important 
part  in  the  mental  development  of  the  child,  not  only  in 
principle,  but  in  fact.  The  foreign  language  should  not  be 
taken  up  until  the  child  has  obtained  a  considerable  degree 
of  facility  in  thought  and  expression.  It  is  not  my  inten- 
tion here,  however,  to  fix  when  such  supplementary  studies 
as  Latin,  French,  and  German  should  be  begun.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  they  are  usually  begun  late  enough  in  this  coun- 
try, to  presuppose  the  necessary  grounding  in  English  upon 
which  modern  language  teachers  can  safely  build. 

Whatever  method  the  teacher  may  use,  he  cannot  expect 
to  be  successful  if  the  pupil  has  never  been  taught  his  own 
language  properly.  It  is  like  building  the  second  story  to 

„    „  a  house  before  the  framework  of  the  first  is 

Pupil's 

Training  sufficiently  finished.     Still  it  is  no  uncommon 

in  English.  condition  to  find  a  large  number  of  pupils  who 
have  no  clear  conception  of  English  grammar ;  even  pupils 
of  fifteen,  sixteen,  and  seventeen  are  set  to  learn  a  foreign 
language,  and  yet  have  the  most  confused,  worthless  ideas 
of  the  ordinary  technical  expressions,  such  as  subject,  object, 


AIM   OF   A  COUESE.  35 

noun,  verb,  etc.  The  high  school  teacher  of  foreign  lan- 
guages, instead  of  being  able  to  count  upon  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  grammar  common  to  all  languages  studied  in 
school,  finds  that  his  time  must  be  spent  in  doing  what 
should  have  been  done,  and  could  have  been  better  done, 
years  ago  in  the  elementary  school. 

It  seems,  at  times,  as  if  the  teachers  themselves  lack  suffi- 
cient linguistic  training  to  teach  the  type  of  formal  grammat- 
ical work  necessary  for  sound  language  study,  whether  for 
Latin,  German,  or  English.  I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that 
the  teachers  should  go  back  to  the  methods  of  grammar 
study  in  vogue  a  few  years  ago,  and  still  to  be  met  with  in 
some  schools.  The  mere  parrot-like  memorizing  of  rules, 
so  taught  that  they  can  mean  nothing  concrete  to  the  pupils, 
is  not  what  is  needed.  We  do  not  believe  in  that  kind  of 
instruction  for  a  foreign  language ;  it  would  be  equally,  if 
not  more,  deadening  in  the  English  classes.  Still  any  lan- 
guage study,  either  French,  German,  or  English,  which  neg- 
lects the  formal  side  of  the  work,  can  never  be  anything  but 
superficial  in  its  results,  and  will  stunt  the  child  mind  for 
future  sound  linguistic  study.  The  maturer  student  who 
takes  up  the  study  of  philology  finds  himself  hampered 
because  of  his  insufficient  training  in  the  mother-tongue. 
Grammar  is  dull,  the  children  do  not  like  it,  we  hear  said. 
I  do  not  believe  this  will  be  true  if  the  teacher  knows  the 
subject  and  how  to  teach  it.  The  modern  language  teacher 
is,  after  all,  very  humble  in  his  demands,  and  does  not  ask 
too  much  of  boys  and  girls  of  fourteen  and  fifteen.  The 
requirements  are  well  summarized  by  Professor  Baker,  in 
"  The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Elementary  School,"  pp. 


36  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

1501 :  "The  body  of  grammatical  facts  appropriate  to  the 
elementary  school  is  rather  limited.  It  might  be  summed  up 
about  as  follows : 

"  I.  A  knowledge  of  the  sentence  sufficient  to  analyze  and 
parse  it  down  to  its  single  words,  except,  of  course,  in  the 
case  of  phrases  that  are  so  idiomatic  that  they  render  anal- 
ysis absurd. 

"  II.  An  understanding  of  case  and  a  knowledge  of  case 
relationships  including  not  only  the  nominative,  genitive, 
and  objective  (or  accusative),  but  also  the  dative  and  the 
vocative. 

"III.  An  acquaintance  with  the  verb  in  its  varied  aspects 
of  voice,  mood,  and  tense  ;  transitive  and  intransitive  parti- 
ciples and  their  uses. 

"  IV.  A  knowledge  of  all  the  common  inflections  as  they 
appear  in  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

"  V.  The  various  kinds  of  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives, 
adverbs,  and  conjunctions. 

"  VI.  The  simple  rules  of  syntax,  particularly  those  whose 
violation  is  common  in  oral  speech. 

"VII.  The  power  to  distinguish  between  relationships 
where  the  form  may  be  the  same  but  the  meaning  twofold, 
as  in  phrases  like  '  the  love  of  God.' 

"  VIII.  A  brief  general  history  of  the  language  as  to  its 
origin  ;  some  of  the  historical  facts  that  throw  light  on  pres- 
ent forms,  like  the  genitive  and  dative  cases,  the  verb 
phrases,  etc." 

One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  good  work,  particularly 
in  the  larger  cities  of  Germany  and  of  our  own  country,  is 

1  "The  Teaching  of  English,"  Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott,  New  York. 


AIM   OF  A   COURSE.  37 

the  size  of  the  classes.     Too  large  classes  make  good  results 

impossible,  even  in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher. 
The  Class. 

In  my  estimation  no  subject  sutlers  so  much 

from  crowded  classes  as  language  work,  for  the  result  of  no 
other  subject  depends  so  much  upon  the  oral  practice  of  the 
pupil.     In  order  to  learn  a  language,  particu- 
larly a  living  language,  the  teacher  must  have 
the  opportunity  to  call  upon  each  individual  pupil  often. 

This  oral  work  in  the  language  is  very  necessary  even 
when  reading  is  made  the  practical  goal  of  instruction,  and 
it  is,  of  course,  fundamental  when  speaking  is  the  chief  end. 
It  is  only  when  abundant  opportunities  are 
in  ciass^  offered  to  each  individual  pupil  that  there  can 
be  any  question  of  his  acquiring  any  speaking 
knowledge  worthy  of  the  name.  We  know  that  the  accom- 
plishment of  speaking  a  foreign  language  has  a  physical  as 
well  as  a  psychical  side.  To  speak  well  presupposes  a  co- 
ordination of  both  forces,  physical  and  psychical,  but  before 
the  harmonious  working  together  can  be  brought  about,  one 
needs  not  only  a  long  period  of  study,  but  during  this  time, 
intensive  daily  practice.  Even  if  we  content  ourselves  with 
just  teaching  enough  speaking  to  satisfy  our  demands,  i.  e.} 
of  teaching  the  class  to  read,  each  pupil,  especially  in  the 
lower  classes,  must  receive  a  great  deal  of  individual  atten- 
tion. How  is  this  posssible  in  classes  of  forty  or  forty-five  ? 
It  is  certainly  wonderful  what  some  teachers  can  accomplish 
under  such,  for  our  subject,  abnormal  conditions.  It  is  kill- 
ing work  for  the  teacher,  however,  and  sooner  or  later,  he 
either  breaks  down  under  the  excessive  strain,  or  he  adopts 
a  less  tiring  method  of  teaching.  Thus  too  large  classes 


48390 


38  THE   TEACHING  OF   GEKMAN. 

have  a  demoralizing  effect  on  the  teacher  who  is  capable  of 
doing,  and  under  less  trying  conditions  would  be  willing  to 
do,  more  for  his  pupils. 

To  suggest  a  remedy  against  over-crowding,  except  the 
obvious  one  of  increasing  the  staff  of  teachers,  is  not  an  easy 
matter.  It  is  especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  instruction 
that  relief  is  most  needed.  After  the  pupils 
Remedy  Can  have  gained  a  knowledge  of  pronunciation,  and 
suggest?  an  eiementaiy  vocabulary,  etc.,  and,  above  all, 
a  right  attitude  towards  the  new  language,  the  effect  is  not 
so  injurious  as  in  the  first  year,  say,  of  language  study.  In 
schools  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  have  large  classes,  it 
would  seem  almost  advisable  to  halve  the  divisions  for 
modern  language  work,  even  at  the  expense  of  the  pupils 
having  fewer  hours  a  week. 


CHAPTER  III. 
PRONUNCIATION. 

THE  Reform  movement  in  Germany  has  done  an  important 
service  to  modern  language  instruction  through  the  emphasis 
it  has  laid  on  pronunciation.  Under  the  old  regime  before 
the  days  of  the  new  movement,  there  was  generally  great 
neglect  of  this  important  element  of  the  course.  It  was 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers  themselves  possessed 
a  faulty  pronunciation,  and  thus  did  not  realize  the  great 
differences  existing  in  it,  and  partly  because  a  good  pronun- 
ciation was  not  considered  important  enough  to  deserve  the 
time  it  would  take  to  obtain  in  a  course  almost  entirely  made 
up  of  translation  and  grammatical  study.  With  the  radical 
shifting  of  the  emphasis  to  speaking,  to  the  spoken  word  as 
the  basis  of  modern  language  work,  a  correspondingly  great 
change  in  the  value  set  upon  correct  pronunciation  was  an 
inevitable  consequence. 

Fortunately  the  time  was  auspicious  for  placing  pronuncia- 
tion in  school  work  on  a  high  plane,  because  of  the  progress 
made  in  the  scientific  study  of  phonetics.  The  results  of 
such  writers  as  Bell,  Ellis,  and  Sweet,  in  Eng- 
Phonetics  ^nd,  °^  Sievers,  Trautmann,  Techmer,  Victor, 

and  others,  in  Germany,  and  of  Passy,  and 
others,  in  France,  were  utilized  for  school  purposes.  The 
greatest  influence,  however,  was  on  the  teachers  themselves. 
They  saw  that  their  mistakes  would  be  passed  on  to  the 

39 


40  THE  TEACHING  OF   GEEMAN. 

pupils;  that  in  order  to  expect  a  tolerable  pronunciation 
from  the  pupils,  they  must  themselves,  by  earnest  study  of 
phonetics  and  practice,  try  to  correct  defects  in  their  own ; 
that  each  individual  must  overcome  by  systematic  training, 
the  influences  of  dialect  on  the  pronunciation  of  the  foreign 
language.  They  realized  that  their  study  of  phonetics  should 
show  practical  results  in  the  school-room,  that  the  teacher 
should  not  only  be  a  model  as  regards  pronunciation,  but 
should  also  be  in  a  position  to  explain  accurately  how  sounds 
differing  from  the  mother-tongue  should  be  made.  He 
should  possess  a  working  knowledge  of  phonetics,  and  not 
limit  his  study  to  securing  a  good  pronunciation  himself  and 
the  knowledge  of  how  to  keep  that  good  pronunciation,  once 
acquired. 

The  high  standard  set  up  by  the  Reformers  in  this  im- 
portant part  of  modern  language  work  is  one  which  American 
teachers  ought  also  to  make  their  own.  A  good  pronuncia- 
tion on  the  part  of  teacher  and  pupil  is  of  fundamental  import- 
ance. It  is  worth  all  the  time  and  trouble 
Importance 

of  a  Good  taken    to   obtain    it.       Whether  we  make  a 

Pronunciation.  Speakmg  knowledge  of  paramount  importance, 
or  a  reading  knowledge  (as  I  advocate  for  America),  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  pupils  should  learn  to  pronounce,  and  later  to 
read,  accurately  and  fluently.  For  successful  work  the 
pupil  must  be  taught  from  the  very  first  to  hear,  see,  and 
pronounce  correctly.  Each  factor  is  important.  The  pupil 
who  is  never  taught  by  the  teacher  to  pronounce  a  word 
twice  alike,  who  stumbles  repeatedly,  who  is  never  sure  from 
the  first  day  to  the  last  day  of  the  course,  is  greatly  handi- 
capped for  any  future  growth  along  the  lines  of  a  practical 


PRONUNCIATION.  41 

command  of  the  language.  And  although  in  school  work 
our  main  object  is  to  teach  a  reading  knowledge,  because  we 
cannot  do  everything  and  that  seems  to  be  the  most  important, 
still  the  teacher  has  no  right  to  stunt  the  pupil's  growth 
along  the  lines  of  a  speaking  knowledge.  This  is  certainly 
done  if  pronunciation  is  neglected  at  any  time  during  the 
secondary  school  course.  Even  if  we  leave  out  future  pos- 
sibilities of  using  the  language,  the  course  suffers.  To  form 
right  habits  of  pronunciation  is  as  essential  as  to  teach  right 
habits  in  any  discipline.  We  strive  to  teach  grammar  cor- 
rectly, with  equal  justice  we  must,  for  the  pupil's  sake,  teach 
pronunciation  as  correctly  as  lies  in  our  power. 

As  I  have  already  intimated,  we  must  begin  with  our- 
selves, examine  our  own  defects  in  pronuncia- 
as  a  Motel*  **on>  an(^  ^7  study  and  practice  seek  to  remedy 
them,  so  that  we  can  act  as  a  good  model  for 
our  pupils  to  copy.  It  does  not  follow  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  the  pupils  will  pronounce  well  simply  because  the 
teacher  does  so,  but  on  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  with  a 
faulty  pronunciation  cannot  hope  to  teach  a  better  pronuncia- 
tion than  he  himself  possesses.  For  after  all  is  said  and 
done,  imitation  is  the  greatest  force  in  teaching  a  good  pro- 
nunciation. A  good  model  has  a  strong  tendency  towards 
securing  good  results,  and  vice  versa. 

It  is  by  no  means  sufficient  for  the  teacher  to  have  learnt 
the  language  in  Germany.     Even  then  he  may  have  a  good 
pronunciation  or  a  bad  one.     As  it  is  largely  gained  by  imi- 
tation, perhaps  unconscious,  of  the  people  with 
Study  Abroad. 

whom  he  has  come  in  contact,  it  is  likely  to  be 

filled  with  dialectic  peculiarities.      The   student  who  has 


42  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

learned  the  language  in  Berlin,  will  not  speak  with  the  same 
accent  as  the  student  who  has  spent  his  time  in  Munich,  for 
example.  Above  all  he  will  find,  if  he  examines  his  pro- 
nunciation, that  it  is  full  of  little  discrepancies,  that  he  is  not 
consistent  in  his  pronunciation.  For  example,  he  pronounces 
the  final  "  g  "  in  various  ways,  but  there  is  a  lack  of  system 
in  it.  If  he  has  studied  in  a  number  of  places,  all  the  more 
he  needs  to  get  some  standard  which  he  can  safely  follow. 

The  teacher  of  German  birth  labors  under  similar  disad- 
vantages, indeed  is  more  heavily  handicapped  as  a  rule.  He 
usually  speaks  the  dialect  of  his  native  province,  and  thus 
needs  to  know  how  far  his  speech  differs  from 
wnat  we  mav  call  a  standard  of  pronunciation 
for  teaching  in  American  schools.  The  Ger- 
man nation  has  long  had  a  literary  language,  but  it  is  a 
written  one,  not  a  spoken.  The  inhabitants  of  the  different 
territorial  divisions  of  the  German  Empire  learn  to  read  a 
common  language,  but  each  pronounces  it  in  the  manner 
peculiar  to  his  own  locality.  In  spite  of  the  predominance 
of  Prussia,  and  the  importance  that  Berlin  has  assumed  as  its 
capital,  its  influence  on  pronunciation  is  not  to  be  compared 
with  that  which  Paris  has  exercised  in  France,  and  London 
in  England.  With  the  spread  of  education  and  modern  inter- 
course, there  is  of  course  a  strong  tendency,  especially  among 
the  higher  classes  in  the  larger  towns,  towards  greater  unifor- 
mity, still  even  to-day  there  is  considerable  divergence  be- 
tween the  pronunciation  of  Northern,  Middle,  and  Southern 
Germany  —  a  divergence  which  will  long  continue  to  exist. 
We  shall  look  in  vain  for  any  one  place  where  standard 
German  is  spoken,  for  every  province  has  its  provincialisms. 


PRONUNCIATION.  43 

Even  the  pronunciation  in  Hanover,  so  long  in  vogue  in 
England,  is  in  many  respects  not  worthy  of 
German  imitation.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  most 

Pronunciation.  «correct»  German,  that  is  the  pronunciation 
which  follows  the  orthography  most  closely,  is  spoken  in 
North  Germany.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  the  native 
dialect  is  so  very  different  from  the  High  German  of  the 
literary  language.  In  a  way,  the  literary  language  is  a  for- 
eign language  to  the  inhabitants  of  North  Germany,  it  is  a 
book  language  to  them,  and  so  has  received  more  careful 
study  than  elsewhere.  The  influence  of  Prussia  too,  politi- 
cal and  literary,  as  the  largest  state  in  the  Empire,  has  also 
tended  to  bring  the  language  of  North  Germany  into  good 
repute.  With  some  exceptions,  this  is  the  language  adopted 
by  the  German  stage,  the  present  standard  pronunciation  as 
far  as  there  can  be  any  standard.  "  A  common  pronuncia- 
tion for  the  stage  is  absolutely  necessary  !"  as  Breul1  says, 
"a  play  like  'Iphigenie'  would  be  completely  spoilt  if 
Orestes  were  to  speak  Swabian,  Py lades — Westphalian, 
Iphigenia — Saxon,  and  King  Thoas  —  East  Prussian." 

For  a  long  time  the  theatre  has  accordingly  aimed  at  one 

pronunciation,  free  from  dialect,  for  every  stage  in  Germany, 

the  so-called  "  Biihnendeutsch."     The  standard  was  at  first 

set  by  men  who  had  little  or  no  schooling  in 

^  phonetics,  and  consequently  not  always  relia- 

ble knowledge.  Latterly,  however,  there  has 
been  a  movement,  notably  on  the  part  of  some  University 
Professors,  to  put  this  normalized  pronunciation  on  a  firm 
basis.  In  April,  1898,  a  Commission  met  in  Berlin  of  rep- 

1  "The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages,"  London,  1899. 


44  THE  TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

resentatives  of  the  Biihnenverein,  Graf  von  Hochberg  of 
Berlin,  Freiherr  von  Ledebur  of  Schwerin,  and  Dr.  Eduafd 
Tempeltey  of  Koburg  ;  University  representatives,  Professor 
Sievers  of  Leipzig,  Professor  Luick  of  Graz,  and  Professor 
Siebs  of  Greifswald.  Professor  Seemuller  of  Innsbruck, 
and  Professor  Victor  of  Marburg,  were  unable  to  attend, 
and  sent  suggestions  by  letter.  The  conference,  by  the  pres- 
ence of  such  specialists  in  phonetics  and  university  profes- 
sors, became  of  far  greater  significance,  especially  as  the 
proposition  for  holding  the  conference  originated  in  the 
scientific  side  of  the  Commission,  namely  Professor  Siebs. 
An  attempt  was  made  as  far  as  practicable  to  take  the 
existing  stage  pronunciation  as  a  basis,  and  to  adjust,  by 
way  of  compromise,  differences  that  still  continue  to  exist 
among  the  actors  themselves  in  the  theatres  of  Germany. 
The  method  in  which  the  Commission  went  to  work  is,  in  a 
few  words,  as  follows  : 

A  fundamental  principle  of  the  present  stage  usage,  as 
formulated  by  Professor  Sievers  is  :  "  Unsere  Biihnenaus- 
sprache  ist  darauf  erbaut,  dass  hochdeutsche  Sprachformen 

(wie  sie  unsere  auf  ostmitteldeutsche  Grund- 
Commliion.       laSe   berunende    Schriftsprache    zeigt)  ausge- 

sprochen  werden  mit  den  einfachen  nieder- 
deutschen  Lautwerten ;  aber  keine  Einmischung  von 
Dialektformen."  Wherever  this  principle  was  not  sufficient 
the  Commission  divided  Germany,  geographically  and  lin- 
guistically, into  three  great  groups,  low,  middle,  and  high 
German.  In  a  disputed  point  generally,  where  two  out  of 
the  three  groups  preferred  a  certain  pronunciation,  that  pro- 
nunciation was  accepted  as  the  "norm."  An  important 


PRONUNCIATION.  45 

work  of  the  Commission  consisted  also  in  fixing  the  pronun- 
ciation of  foreign  words,  etc.  The  result  of  the  discussion 
is  incorporated  in  the  larger  edition  of  the  "Deutsche 
Biihnenaussprache,"  and  the  smaller  stage  edition,  "  Grund- 
ziige  der  Biihnenaussprache."  * 

I  can  hardly  do  more  here  than  draw  attention  to  this 
earnest  attempt  to  fix  the  pronunciation  of  the  stage,  and 
suggest  books  on  the  subject  for  all  teachers  of  German  in 
America,  in  connection  with  other  books  on  phonetics. 

The  various  books  by  Victor  will  be  found  very  helpful  for 
American  teachers  in  obtaining  an  insight  into  this  most  per- 
plexing question.  "  Die  Aussprache  des  Schriftdeutschen  "  2 
contains  a  valuable  word  list  with  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion given  in  the  transcription  of  the  Associa- 
te subject  ^ou  Ph011^*!116  Internationale.  At  the  end 
of  the  little  book  there  are  also  a  number  of 
specimens  of  prose  and  verse,  printed  in  both  the  ordinary 
orthography  and  in  the  transcribed  form.  For  those  who  do 
not  wish  to  read  the  larger  work,  Vie'tor' s  "  Elemente  der 
Phonetik  des  Deutschen,  Englischen,  und  Franzosischen  "  3 
will  find  the  same  book  condensed  in  the  "  Kleine  Pho- 
netik." 4  A  translation  and  adaptation  of  the  first  edition  is 
W.  Rippmann's  "  Elements  of  Phonetics." 5  A  very  valu- 
able book  has  also  appeared  in  this  country  in  HempFs 

^'Deutsche  Biihnenaussprache, "  2te  Aufl.,  1901.  "Grundziige  der 
Biihnenaussprache,"  1900.  Ahn,  Berlin,  Koln,  Leipzig. 

*  "Die  Aussprache  des  Schriftdeutschen,"  5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1901. 

3 "  Elemente  der  Phonetik  des  Deutschen,  Englischen,  und  Franzoei- 
schen,"  Victor,  5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1904. 

4  "Kleine  Phonetik,"  Vie'tor,  3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1903. 

*  "Elements  of  Phonetics,"  Rippmann,  London,  1899. 


46  THE  TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

"  German  Orthography  and  Phonology." l  In  the  part  of 
this  book  dealing  with  pronunciation,  each  letter  of  the  alpha- 
bet is  discussed.  Sooner  or  later,  every  teacher  ought  to  study 
Sievers'  "  Grundziige  der  Phonetik."  2  Primarily  written 
for  the  use  of  the  philologist,  it  will  lay  the  basis  for  a  sound 
knowledge  of  the  subject  of  phonetics.  The  book  is  most 
carefully  constructed  so  that  the  new  and  strange  in  the  sub- 
ject gradually  unfolds  itself  to  the  reader.  Victor's  "  Deut- 
sches  Lesebuch  in  Lautschrift,"  3  affords  abundant  material 
for  practice.  The  ordinary  text  and  the  transcribed  face  each 
other  for  convenience  in  comparing.  A  popular  book  writ- 
ten for  the  use  of  actors  and  students,  containing  a  host  of 
exercises,  will  be  found  in  Oberlander's  "Uebungen  zum 
Erlernen  einer  dialektfreien  Aussprache." 4  The  exercises 
are  largely  in  the  form  of  detached  sentences,  in  which  a 
particular  sound  is  brought  out  as  often  as  possible.  Other 
books  on  the  subject  of  pronunciation  will  be  found  in  the 
General  Bibliography. 

A  certain  section  among  the  Reformers  in  Germany  have 
gone  one  step  further  in  their  attempts  to  secure  a  true  pro- 
nunciation of  the  foreign  language,  namely,  by  introducing 

phonetic  or  transcribed  texts  in  the  school.    The 
Texts*10  system  generally  followed  is  the  one  quoted 

above,    that   of    the   Association    Phone"tique 
Internationale.     Imitation  of  the  teacher  alone,  they  say,  is 

1  "German  Orthography  and  Phonology,"  Hempl,  Boston,  1897. 

2  "Grundziige  der  Phonetik,"  Sievers,  5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1901. 

3  "Deutsches  Lesebuch  in  Lautschrift,"  Victor,  Leipzig,  I.  Teil,  1899, 
II.  Teil,  1902. 

4  "Uebungen  zum  Erlernen  einer  (lialektfreien  Aussprache,"  Ober- 
liinder,  Miinchen,  1901. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


47 


not  sufficient  to  insure  the  pupils'  learning  the  correct  sounds. 
They  need  some  training  in  elementary  phonetics,  and  the 
best  way  to  accomplish  this  is  by  the  introduction  of  phonetic 
texts  in  the  place  of  ordinary  texts  at  the  beginning  of  the 
course.  In  this  phonetic  spelling,  of  course,  one  symbol 
always  represents  one  and  the  same  sound.  Hung  up  on 
the  school-room  wall  is  a  so-called  "  Lauttafel," l  in  three 
colors,  voiceless  sounds  —  black,  voiced  —  red,  and  nasal  — 
green.  With  the  aid  of  the  teacher  the  class  learns  the 
value  of  the  various  symbols,  and  at  any  mistake  made,  the 

LAUTSCHRIFT.  2 


Lippenlautc. 

Zahnlaute. 

Vorder- 
Gaume 

Hinter- 

nlautc. 

Kehllaute. 

d 

£§ 

pb 

td 

±9 

» 

*m 

*n 

*n 

§ 

1 

o 

tie 

m 

al 

r 

B 

S" 

W-s 

p 

£ 

fv 

sz/3 

PJ 

^g 

h 

A 
a 

a 

[} 

e(0)        (o) 

0^ 

i 

(  ) 

3 

E. 

O 

£(05)     (o) 

? 

a 

*  Nasal 


(  )  =  Lippenrundung. 


Lange=  :(z.  B.  a:).     Unbetont  verkiirzte  Lange=  *  (z.  B.  a"). 

Bis  zur  Unsilbigkeit  verkurztes  i:,  i*  =  X. 
Ton  (Nachdruck)  —'  (z.  B/a:).     Nasalierung=:"(z.  B.  a:). 

Diphthonge  :  ai  —  au  —  oy  —  ui. 

1  "Deutsche,  englische,  und  franzosische  Lauttafel,"  System  Vietor, 
Marburg. 

*Cf.  Victor's  "  Deutsches  Lesebuch  in  Lautschrift,"  L  Teil,  p.  3. 


48  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

"Lauttafel"  can  easily  be  referred  to  and  the  isolated 
sound  practised.  It  is  claimed  that,  as  the  language,  at 
first,  is  only  seen  by  the  pupils  in  the  phonetic  garb, 
the  danger  of  acquiring  a  false  pronunciation  is  considerably 
less  than  if  the  ordinary  text,  with  its  misleading  spelling, 
were  used  at  the  beginning.  The  pupil  thus  trained  takes 
less  time  to  learn  a  good  pronunciation.  Moreover,  as  he  is 
not  led  astray  by  the  historic  spelling,  he  begins  at  once  to 
form  a  strong  habit  of  accuracy  and  sureness  in  giving  the 
new  sounds.  The  phonetic  texts  also  act  as  a  guide  in  the 
home  work,  and  are  the  best  substitute  for  the  teacher.  The 
pupil  has  the  key  to  the  correct  reading,  and  in  the  repetition 
of  the  day's  work  can  better  check  any  false  pronunciation 
than  under  the  old  way,  which  depended  upon  the  pupil's 
memory  of  how  the  teacher  pronounced  the  various  words,  etc. 
The  method  employed  and  the  length  of  time  that  elapses 
before  the  regular  orthography  is  introduced  in  the  class, 
varies  widely  with  different  teachers,  from  simply  using  the 

.,,.  ^          symbols  to  illustrate  on  the  board  the  proper 
Substitution         J 

of  Regular  pronunciation  of  a  word,  to  the  exclusive  use 
Texts.  Qf  phonetic  texts  as  sketched  above,  until  the 

class  has  mastered  the  new  pronunciation  sufficiently  to  war- 
rant the  change.  Some  urge  half  a  year's,  others  one,  and 
still  others  one  and  a  half  year's  use  as  necessary.  To  get 
a  complete  idea  of  how  phonetics  and  phonetic  texts  can  be 
utilized,  I  refer  the  reader  to  "  Franzosische  Aussprache  und 
Sprachfertigkeit."  l  According  to  Munch,  in  his  "  Franzosi- 
scher  Unterricht " 2  the  majority  of  teachers  still  seem  to  be 

1  "Franzosische  Aussprache  und  Sprachfertigkeit,"  Quiehl,  Marburg, 
1899. 

2  "  Franzosischer  Unterricht,"  Munch,  2d  ed.,  Miinchen,  1902,  p.  32. 


PRONUNCIATION.  49 

opposed  to  the  regular  use  of  transcription  alone,  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  The  chief  objections  being  that 
"  man  befiirchtet  entweder  orthographische  Unsicherheit  oder 
entbehrliche  Mehrbelastung  der  Schiiler."  One  might  enlarge 
upon  these  objections,  and  add  others  from  the  standpoint  of 
teachers  in  Germany,  but  I  hardly  think  it  is  important  here. 
The  principal  reason  against  any  extended  use  of  the  "  Laut- 
schrift "  for  teaching  German  in  the  United  States  is  that  it  is 
not  really  needed.  We  are  far  away  from  the  various  dialects 
of  Germany,  and  in  school  we  teach  a  normalized  pronuncia- 
tion. Also,  speaking  unscientifically,  German  orthography  is 
a  phonetic  orthography  compared  with  English.  Imitation 
of  the  teacher,  though  not  alone  sufficient  to  ensure  a  proper 
pronunciation,  is  the  most  important  means,  and  whenever 
imitation  fails  to  bring  about  the  desired  result,  practical 
explanation  of  how  the  troublesome  sounds  are  made  must 
come  to  its  aid.  A  teacher  will  undoubtedly,  by  his  study 
of  phonetics,  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  usual  systems  of 
phonetic  transcriptions,  and  benefit  his  pronunciation  thereby. 
But  any  extended  use  of  phonetic  texts  in  elementary  work 
in  the  study  of  German  in  America  is  uncalled  for.  I  would 
not  imply,  however,  that  I  do  not  attach  great  importance  to 
the  accurate  teaching  of  pronunciation,  or  that  I  think  that 
even  a  satisfactory  pronunciation  of  German  is  easily  ac- 
quired. It  requires,  on  the  contrary,  great  care  and  patience 
from  the  first  to  the  last  day  of  the  course.  The  foundation 
must  be  well  laid  in  the  first  year,  in  fact  the  first  few 
weeks  of  the  first  year  are  critical ;  and  what  is  learned 
then  must  be  kept  up  to  the  mark,  improved  wherever  pos- 
sible, through  untiring  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
5 


50  THE  TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

if  poorer  work  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  upper  than  in  the 
lower  classes. 

Before  taking  up  the  actual  class  procedure,  a  few  words 
on  general  points  of  difference  between  the  two  languages, 
and  the  chief  difficulties  that  are  usually  met  with  in  teach- 
ing German  pronunciation. 

The  pupil  learns  a  German  intonation,  with  proper  word 
and  sentence  stress,  very  largely  by  imitation.  How  a  teacher 
is  to  acquire  a  proper  intonation  is  a  difficult  question  to 

answer.  Many  can  learn  through  hearing 
Intonation. 

German,  and  by  study  of  the  subject,  a  suffi- 
ciently accurate  pronunciation,  and  yet  fail  to  get  the  more 
subtle  qualities  of  intonation.  Even  an  approximate  acqui- 
sition of  the  natural  rise  and  fall  of  the  voice,  and  the 
emphasis  which  is  peculiar  to  a  foreign  language,  cannot  be 
attained  by  all.  Above  all,  one  must  have  a  musical  ear, 
be  quick  at  imitation,  good  at  mimicry,  if  one  may  use  such 
a  word.  Those  who  have  opportunities  of  hearing  and 
speaking  German  with  Germans  will  unconsciously,  and 
wherever  possible  consciously,  strive  to  catch  the  proper  in- 
tonation. How  about  those  who  lack  such  advantages? 
Phonetic  texts  give  little  beyond  accent  marks  before  words 
receiving  stress,  and  bars  between  the  different  stress  groups  : 
'/drai/'kindar/zoltan  na:x  dar  'J~u:l8/ge:an ;  //.  Or,  as 
in  Passy's  book,  "  Le  Fran9ais  parl6," 1  the  rising,  falling,  or 
level  intonation  are  shown  by  such  lines  as  /  \  — .2  Accents 
he  indicates  by  larger  spaces  between  the  words.  A  specially 
stressed  syllable  is  followed  by  an  acute  accent  after  the 

*"Le  Franpais  parl£,"  Passy,  Heilbronn,  1897. 

8Cf.  "German  Orthography  and  Phonology,"  Hempl,  Boston,  1897, 
p.  169. 


PRONUNCIATION.  51 

syllable  in  question.  These  few  marks  are  suggestive,  no 
doubt,  when  once  a  person  has  acquired  some  knowledge  of 
stress  and  intonation,  etc.,  otherwise  they  will  be  found  very  in- 
adequate. On  the  other  hand,  the  results  of  M.  1'Abbe"  Rous- 
selot's  experiments  in  the  same  field  are  far  too  elaborate  to  aid 
the  struggling  teacher.1  In  the  "  Modern  Language  Quar- 
terly " 2  the  use  of  the  phonograph  for  this  purpose  has  been 
suggested,  which  I  also  recommend.  Equipped  with  a  good 
pronunciation,  considerable  help  in  intonation  can  be  expected 
from  the  use  of  such  mechanical  means.  It  is  well  worth  a 
trial,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  difficult  to  make  the  experiment 
in  the  United  States  where  machines  are  in  such  general  use. 
Compared  with  German,  English  sounds  are  dull  and 
muffled.  This  is  due  principally  to  the  difference  in  the 
position  and  form  of  the  lips  and  tongue  in  speaking.  In 

English  the  mouth  is  more  closed,  the  lips  more 
and  Tongue        inactive,  than  in  German,  and  the  tongue  when  at 

rest  is  flat  and  lies  farther  back  from  the  teeth, 
and  is  more  sluggish  in  its  action.  The  result  is  that  the  vowels 
are  less  clear  and  distinct  from  one  another,  and  often  become 
diphthongs,  while  the  consonants  seem  less  sharp  and  crisp. 
In  teaching  vowel  sounds  which  correspond,  in  the  first 
element  at  least,  to  those  in  German,  the  teacher  will  have 
trouble  in  getting  the  pupil  to  hold  the  same  vowel  sound 

throughout.     In  English,  for  example,  we  pro- 
sounds  nounce  the  "  o  "  in  "  rose  "  as  a  diphthong  : 

o-u,  rouz,  or  ronz,  while,  in  German,  the  "  o," 
when  correctly  pronounced,  is  a  simple  vowel,      "e,"  is 

'See  also    "Elementary   Experimental   Phonetics,"    Scripture,   New 
York,  1902. 

2  "Modern Language  Quarterly,"  December,  1902, Vol. V.,  no.  3,  p.  179.. 


52  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

also  a  pure  vowel,  not  as  English  "  a  "  in  they,  pay.  In  the 
vowel  "  u,"  one  must  guard  against  the  sound  of  "  u  "  in 
"use,"  the  phonetic  spelling  of  which  is  "juws"  (Sweet),  or 
the  British-English  pronunciation  of  "  new,"  "  tune,"  etc. 
Pupils  are  also  inclined  to  give  a  more  or  less  obscure  vowel 
sound  in  unaccented  syllables  where  the  German  requires  the 
pure  sound,  e.  g.,  "niemand"  should  be  pronounced 
"ni:mant"  and  not  "ni:mant,"  "kanorna"  and  not 
"kano:na,"  "or"  in  "Professor"  should  not  become  "a." 
A  common  mistake  is  to  pronounce  prefixes  "  er,"  "  ver," 
and  "  zer "  to  rhyme  with  the  English  "  err,"  "  fur," 
and  "  sir." 

In  German  the  single  words  in  a  sentence  seem  to  stand 
out  more  clearly  than  in  English  and  French.     In  other 
words,  we  run  our  words  together  more  than  the  German 
does.     The  final  consonant  in  German  is  not 
carried  over  before  a  new  word  beginning  with 
a  vowel,  as  in  the  case  of  the  French  "  liaison." 
A  reason  for  the  slight  pause,  as  it  were,  between  individual 
words  may  be  found  in  the  manner  in  which  the  German 
begins  words  with  an  initial  vowel,  namely  with  what  is 
called  a  glottal  catch  (Sweet),  or  glottal  stop,  phonetically  rep- 
resented "?".     "The  glottal  stop  is  produced  by  stopping  the 
breath  in  the  throat  and  exploding  it  thence,  as  one  often 
does  in  making  an  unusual  effort,  as  in  pushing." l     As 
this  manner  of  beginning  the  initial  vowel  of  a  word  is  very 
uncommon  in  English,  pupils  will  have  trouble  in  acquiring 
the  habit  of  using  the  glottal  stop.     In  English  the  vocal 
chords  begin  vibrating  immediately,  whereas  in  German  they 
1  "German  Orthography  and  Phonology,"  Hempl,  p.  104. 


PRONUNCIATION.  53 

are  at  first  closed,  and  then,  as  the  result  of  the  explosion, 
vibrate.  In  a  simple  sentence  like  "  Der  hat  ihn  ins  Bett 
gelegt,"  the  ordinary  reading  of  the  American  pupil  will  be : 
"  Der  hatihnins  Bett  gelegt,"  instead  of  the  forced  separation 
of  the  words  by  the  slight  pause  which  the  use  of  the  glottal 
stop  causes.  The  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  can  be 
taught  later. 

Let  us  now  take  up  some  of  the  particular  difficulties 
in   the   pronunciation  of  German  vowels  and  consonants. 
For  value  of  symbols  consult  table,  p.  47.     In  the  follow- 
ing  description,    the    phonetic  symbols    corresponding    to 
a  letter  or  letters  are  placed  in  (  ).    In  the  case  of  vowels  the 
signs  ~  and  ~  designate  short  and  long  vowels  respectively. 
a.  a  (a)  does  not  exist  in  English.     It  is  the  same  in  qual- 
ity as  long  "  a,"  only  shorter.     Pupils  have  difficulty  in  such 
words  as    "Mann,"  "kann,"  "Hals,"    "Hand,"    "hart," 
where  not  only  the  vowel,  but  the  consonants, 
are  made  too  long.     In  general,  both  "  a  (a : )  " 
and  "  a  (a)  "  are  pronounced  with  the  mouth  too  closed,  and 
with  too  much  of  the  "  a  "  in  "  all." 

o  6.  (o)  has  no  corresponding  sound  in  English.     Pupils, 
however,  easily  get   the   pronunciation    from 
imitation,  if  made  to  round  the  lips  carefully. 
6.  '6  (<f> : ).     This  is  best  taught  from  the  "  e  (e  : )  "  side, 
the  "6  (oe)"   from  the  "  e  (e)."     After  the  pupils  have 
learned   to  feel    the  position  of  the  tongue  for  "e  (e:)," 
tell  them  to  round  the  lips  as  if  pronouncing 
"  6  (o  : )."    Once  acquired,  frequent  practice  of 
this  kind  will  be  necessary.      The  teacher  can  make  up  exer- 
cises on  the  plan  of  "  hehlen-hohlen."     The  "  o  (oe),"  like- 


54  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

wise,  "  helle-Holle,"  "  kennen-konnen."  Good  sentences 
can  be  found  in  Oberlander's  "  Uebungen." 

ii.  ii  (y  :).     Pupils  also  learn  this  sound  if  it  is  explained 

as  =  the  vowel  "I  (i :) "  rounded.    Practice  "I  (i :),"  and  then, 

with  the  same  tongue  position  or  nearly  so,  make  them  round 

their  lips  and  protrude  them  considerably.     It 

tl« 

is  better  to  exaggerate  at  first.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  sounds  to  teach,  but,  in 
my  own  experience,  I  have  found  few  who  could  not  get  the 
approximately  correct  sound  at  first.  If  care  is  not  taken, 
however,  to  get  the  proper  rounding  and  protrusion  of  the 
lips  every  time  "  ii  (y  :)  "  appears,  the  pronunciation  of  the 
class  as  regards  this  sound  quickly  deteriorates.  "Fur," 
for  example,  become  "  vier  "  or  "  fur."  It  is  not  difficult  to 
teach  the  sound  but  very  difficult  to  form  the  habit  of  em- 
ploying the  lips  properly,  "ii  (y)"  is  like  the  rounded  ."i" 
vowel. 

Unaccented  "  e  (a)  "  is  best  learned  by  imitation.     Too 
much  explanation  leads  the  pupil  to  make  too 
much  of  it,  especially  in  final  rhyme  words, 
a,  a  (e,  e:).      "  a "  is  identical  with  "  e  (e),"  Held,  halt. 
Pupils  will  more  naturally  perhaps  give  the  long  "  a"  the 
value  of  the  long  close  "  e,"  making  no  difference  in  pro- 
nunciation  between   "  Meere  "   and   "  Mare." 
a'  a>  Though  this  pronunciation  is  not  uncommon, 

it  is  better  to  aim  at  teaching  the  open  "  (e:)  "  sound,  the 
pronunciation  adopted  by  the  stage.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
perplexing  question  of  the  "e"  sounds  see  "Grundzuge  der 

1('Uebungen  zumErlernen  einer  dialektfreien  Aussprache,"  Oberlan, 
der,  Mvinchen,  1901. 


PKONUNCIATION.  55 

Buhnenaussprache,"  p.  37.  I  agree  with  Hempl,  "the  best 
thing  a  foreigner  can  do  is  to  follow  the  usual  practice  of 
the  stage  and  pronounce  all  ( e '  sounds  as  '  e '  (allowing  more 
of  the  t  a '  wide  sound  before  '  r,'  as  in  '  er,'  '  Pferd,'  etc.)." 
ch.  (9)  (x).  The  two  "  ch  's  "  are  a  continual  source  of 
trouble,  and  the  teacher  needs  to  be  on  the  watch  for 
mistakes.  It  is  best  to  begin  teaching  the  front  voice- 
less fricative  with  the  pronoun  "ich"  (9). 
Tell  the  pupils  to  press  the  tongue  firmly 
against  the  lower  teeth  and  try  to  say  "  isbji  as  Thomas 
suggests  in  his  German  grammar.  Once  correctly  given, 
make  them  hold  it  some  time.  In  this  way  they  learn  the 
proper  position  of  the  tongue.  The  manner  of  learning  given 
by  Hempl  is  also  useful.  "  The  sound  may  best  be  learned 
by  whispering^  *  key^  and  dwelling  on  the  sound  which 
follows  the  <k'."  After  the  pupil  can  place  the  tongue 
correctly  for  words  like  "  ich,"  "  dich,"  or  "  sich,"  try 
words  like  "nicht,"  "Gesicht,"  and  so  on,  with  the  other 
front  vowels  and  consonants,  a,  e,  i,  b,  ii,  ai,  ei,  au,  eu,  1,  m, 
n,  and  chen.  ch  (x),  after  back  vowels,  a,  o,  u,  au,  is  more 
difficult  for  the  pupils  to  learn.  It  easily  becomes  with  them 
a  "  k  "  sound.  Exercises  should  be  given  to  bring  out  the 
difference  between  "  roch  "  and  "  Rock,"  etc.  In  fact  one 
of  the  troubles  that  arises  is  to  teach  pupils  to  be  sure  of 
themselves  in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of  "  ch  "  and  "  k." 
Too  much  one-sided  work  on  "  ch,"  tends  to  make  the  pupil 
substitute  "ch"  for  "k,"  "nicht"  for  "nickt,"  etc. 

Words  like  "  Madchen,  Mauschen,  manch,  Milch,"  and 
foreign  words  with  "  ch  "  as  "  9  "  initially,  such  as  "  Chemie, 
China,"  need  considerable  attention.  For  pronunciation  of 


56  THE   TEACHING   OF   QEEMAN. 

"  ch  "  in  foreign  words  and  names,  see  "  Grundziige  der 

Buhnenaussprache,"  p.  40. 

g.  (<7,  g,  k,  x,  j,  9).    The  chief  difficulty  lies  with  the  teacher 

himself.  He  must  first  adopt  some  definite  system  of  pro- 
nunciation for  "  g,"  medially  and  finally.  The 
following  gives  the  various  pronunciations 

allowed  in  Germany,  including  the  results  of  the  conference.1 

Suddeutsch  und  schlesisch  Mittel  und 

Buhnenaussprache.  norddeutsch. 

Tage   t&:gz  ta:ga 


Inlaut-g 

Tag    ta:k  (tak)  ta:x  (tax) 

Auslaut-g  gieg    zi;k  zi;? 

Medial  "  g,"  between  vowels,  is  certainly  easier  to  teach  as 
a  voiced  back  stop  (</),  and  simplifies  the  matter  somewhat. 
As  noticed  above,  this  is  the  stage  usage.  It  is  difficult  to 
decide  between  the  voiceless  back  stop  "  k,"  and  the  voice- 
less front  (back)  spirant  9  (x),  when  "g"  is  final.  The 
stage  has  "k,"  whereas  9(x)  is  the  usage  in  almost  all 
middle  Germany,  and  the  largest  part  of  North  Germany. 
Those  who  follow  the  Buhnenaussprache  will  remember  the 
exception  of  the  ending  "ig"  in  words  like  "freudig, 
Konig,"  also  before  a  consonant,  "  Konigreich,"  where  it 
should  be  pronounced  as  "  ich."  Exceptions  are  words  in 
"  lich,"  "  ewiglich,  koniglich,"  where  "  ch  "  =  "  k." 

w.  (v,  v).  As  a  voiced  spirant  "  w  "  has  the  same  mouth 
position  as  "  f,"  i.  e.,  it  is  a  labio-dental  spirant.  The  bi- 
labial pronunciation  had  better  not  be  taught,  even  after  the 
combinations  "qu,  schw,  zw."  This  uniformity  is  advo- 
cated for  the  stage.2  A  common  mistake  with  pupils  is  to 

»"Deutsches  Lesebuch,"  Victor,  I.  Teil,  p.  149. 
8  "Deutsche  Buhnenaussprache,"  Siebs,  p.  59. 


PRONUNCIATION.  57 

pronounce  "  schwarz  "   either  as   "  schuarz  "  or  "  schfarz  " 
(  f  ua  :  rts  or    f  fa  :  rts). 

sp.  st.  Initial  "  sp  "  and  "  st "  should  be  taught  as  given 
on  the  stage,  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Germany  :  —  namely 

as  if  spelled  "  schp  "  (  Jp )  and  "  scht "  ( J"t.) 

The  Hanoverian  pronunciation  of  "sp"  and 
"st"  like  English  "spend"  and  "stand,"  is  not  to  be 
affected.  It  is  a  provincialism. 

r.  (r,  R).  For  secondary  school  work,  it  is  better  to  teach 
the  "  lingual,"  or  trilled,  "  r,"  the  "  r  "  of  the  stage.  The 
gutteral  or  "uvular  "  " r  "  (R),  although  used  by  the  major- 
ity of  Germans,  is  extremely  hard  to  teach  effectively. 
Even  the  lingual  "  r "  is  often  not  easy  for  the  pupils  to 
learn.  The  difference  between  the  English  and  German 

"  r "  leads  to  the  making  of  many  mistakes. 

In  the  first  place,  "  r "  at  the  end  of  a  word, 
is  not  pronounced  by  a  large  number  of  English-speaking 
people,  unless  the  next  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound. 
We  thus  get,  in  class  work,  "  vier  "  given  to  rhyme  with  the 
English  "  fea(r),"  "  ihr  "  like  "  ea(r),"  etc.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  say  "betterand  better,"  carrying  over  the  "r." 
Accordingly  pupils  reading  the  German  "  besserund  besser," 
run  the  first  two  words  together.  The  German,  as  we  have 
seen,  requires  "  und  "  to  begin  with  the  glottal  catch  or  stop. 
There  is  also  the  temptation  to  sound  the  "  r  "  where,  in  the 
spelling,  none  exists.  A  common  fault  is  to  say  "  the  idea(r) 
of."  It  is  therefore  preferable  to  let  the  pupils  drop  the 
"r"  in  such  a  word  as  "  besser,"  than  keep  up  the  un-Ger- 
man  habit  of  carrying  over  a  final  "  r "  before  an  initial 
vowel  in  the  next  word.  There  are  in  fact  many  Germans 


58  THE   TEACHING   OF    GERMAN. 

who  drop  their  "r"s  at  the  end  of  a  word,  notably  in  Berlin. 

1.     The  teacher  must  bring  out  the  difference  between  the 

clear,  light  sound  of  the  German  "  1,"  and  the  dull,  heavy 

sound  of  the  English  "  1."     There  is  a  striking  difference 

between  the  sound  of  the  English  "  hell "  and 

the  German  "  hell."     In  the  German  "  1 "  the 

lips  are  open  to  the  very  corners  of  the  mouth  and  are  kept 

more  tense.     The  tongue  too  is  more  tense  in  its  action  and 

usually  the  back  is  lowered.     In  sounding  the  English  "  1," 

on  the  contrary,  the  back  of  the  tongue  is  raised  and  there 

is  at  the  same  time  a  concave  lowering  of  the  front  part. 

b.  d.     When  final,  or  next  a  voiceless  consonant,  are  to 

be  pronounced  as  voiceless  sounds,  i.  e.  "p,"    "t,"    as  in 

"Weib,"  "Gold/'  "Erbse,"  "vollends."    Care 

must  be  taken  with  such  words  as  "  lieblich," 

"  schadlich."     Avoid  dividing  the  word  thus  :  "  lie-blich," 

"  scha-dlich,  and  voicing  the  "  b  "  and  "  d."     The  voicing 

of  "b"  in  such  words  as  "abgehen,"  "gehabt,"  "gabst," 

"  Obst,"  "  halb,"  is  a  common  fault  with  pupils. 

s.    Initial  "  s,"  before  a  vowel,  and  medially  between  two 

vowels,  or  liquid  and  vowel,  is  voiced,  in  other 

cases   voiceless.  .  "  Sohn  "  =  zo  :  n,  Reisen  = 

raizon,  reissen  =  rais9n.     Tor  the  stage  pronunciation  for 

foreign  words  see  "  Buhnenaussprache,"  p.  68. 

There  are  other  minor  difficulties  some  of  which  will  be 
taken  up  later  in  the  actual  teaching  of  pronunciation.  For 
orthography,  use  of  capitals,  syllabication,  etc.,  consult 
"  Orthographisches  Worterbuch  der  deutschen  Sprache,"1 

1  "  Orthographisches  Worterbuch  der  deutschen  Sprache,"  Duden,  7th 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1902. 


PRONUNCIATION.  59 

which  contains  the  results  of  the  Orthographische  Konferenz 
of  1901. 

Pupils  not  only  give  the  English  sounds  to  the  German 
letters,  they  also  confound  the  letters  themselves.  Unfamili- 
arity  with  the  new  alphabet,  and  the  fact  that  certain  letters 

bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  one  another,  are 
^e£°lan  sources  of  much  inaccuracy  in  pronunciation 

and  spelling.  It  is  a  question  in  my  mind 
whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  have  the  paradigms  and 
beginning  lessons  printed  in  Roman  letters,  as  is  done  in 
some  books.  Then  after  the  pupils  have  acquired  some  ade- 
quate knowledge  of  the  phonetic  value  of  the  letters  and 
feeling  for  the  characteristics  of  German  orthography,  the 
usual  "  Fraktur  "  texts  could  be  taken  up.  In  any  case  the 
teacher  will  find  it  time  well  spent  if  he  examines  with  the 
class  the  more  troublesome  letters,  and  picks  them  to  pieces, 
as  it  were,  e.  g.}  "  f  and  f,"  «  33  and  $,"  "  (£  and  ©  and  (£," 
"  r  and  j,"  "  b  and  b,"  "  9?  and  $  and  9?,"  « X  and  $." 
Even  "  21 "  and  "  U  "  are  often  confounded. 

A  question  of  minor  importance  is  the  use  of  German 
script  in  secondary  work.  It  certainly  seems  desirable  that 
pupils  during  some  part  of  the  high  school  course  should 

begin  to  learn  to  read  it,  and  possibly  the  best 
script11  way  *°  learn  to  read  German  script  is  by  first 

learning  to  write  it.  It  is  not  absolutely 
necessary,  however.  We  all  learn  to  read  the  printed  Ger- 
man text  fluently,  and  yet,  if  asked  to  make  some  of  the 
letters  we  should  find  ourselves  in  doubt  —  at  least  as  to  the 
formation  of  some  of  the  details.  Nowadays  the  German 
script  is  not  essential.  If  the  pupils  ever  have  occasion  to 


60  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

write  a  German  letter  the  Roman  script  would  be  equally 
easily  read  by  the  recipient.  Germans  are  taught  both  in 
the  schools  and  use  both  continually,  if  not  in  writing  German, 
then  in  Latin,  French  and  English.  In  fact  a  well-written 
letter  in  Roman  script  would  probably  be  more  legible  to  a 
German  than  a  badly  written  German  script,  such  as  is  often 
found  in  American  schools.  It  is  often  neither  one  thing 
nor  the  other.  Through  poor  training  in  the  beginning, 
through  careless  habits,  and  through  too  rapid  writing,  as 
well  as  through  the  influence  of  one's  natural  style,  we  get 
a  "hybrid"  hand-writing  which  I  am  sure  would  often  puzzle 
Germans  to  decipher.  If  the  teacher  thinks  it  important 
enough  for  his  pupils  to  learn  the  new  script,  he  must  for  a 
time  become  a  writing  master.  The  pupil  must  take  a  course 
in  hand-writing,  and  work  through  a  series  of  copy-books. 
For  if  it  is  worth  doing  at  all,  it  is  worth  doing  well.  Pupils 
should  not  be  expected  to  use  it  for  rapid  work  too  soon,  not 
until  they  have  acquired  correct  habits  of  forming  the  letters. 
Rapid  work,  such  as  dictation  and  board  work,  if  required 
too  soon,  causes  the  writing  to  deteriorate  to  the  point  of 
illegibility.  Accordingly,  if  the  teacher  thinks  the  script  is 
a  nice  thing  for  his  pupils  to  know,  and  I  admit  that  pupils 
like  to  learn  it  as  a  rule,  the  script  ought  not  to  be  put  into 
use  practically  the  first  day.  The  pupils  have  enough  to 
learn  without  this  added  difficulty  thrown  in  the  way.  On 
the  contrary,  the  pupils  ought  first  to  be  put  through  a  course 
of  hand-writing,  and  then  the  knowledge  could  be  gradually 
made  use  of,  first  for  home  work,  and  later  for  the  more  rapid 
class  work.  This  supplementary  work  could  begin  when  the 
pupils  have  some  notions  of  German,  say  sometime  during 


PEONUNCIATION.  61 

the  latter  half  of  the  first  year,  or  later  if  desirable.  Per- 
sonally I  do  not  see  the  necessity  for  doing  it  at  all  in  high 
school  classes.  I  should  be  content  with  teaching  pupils  to 
read  the  script. 

Instead  of  making  pupils  learn  a  number  of  rules  of  pro- 
nunciation, such  as  :  "a  "  is  like  " a "  in  " father,"  "  i "  is 
like  "  i "  in  "  machine,"  we  begin,  after  a  few  introductory 
Method  f  words,  with  the  language  itself.  The  intro- 
Teaching  ductory  words  relate  to  the  organs  of  speech, 

Pronunciation.  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  use  of  the 
tongue  and  lips  and  their  influence  on  sounds.  For  con- 
venience in  teaching,  the  pupils  should  know  what  is  meant 
by  a  rounded  vowel.  Starting  from  "  a  "  in  "  ah,"  let  the 
pupils  gradually  produce  the  series  of  vowel  sounds  as  fol- 
lows :  1.  "  a  "  in  "  ah."  2.  "  o  "  in  Ger.  «  Post."  3.  "o  " 
in  "  note."  4.  "  oo  "  in  "  pool."  See  if  the  pupils  are  also 
aware  of  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  tongue.  To  bring 
out  the  movements  of  the  tongue  another  series  can  be  used. 
Again  starting  from  "a"  in  "ah":  1.  "a"  in  "ah."  2. 
"  ai "  in  "  air."  3.  "  ey  "  in  "  they."  4.  "  e  "  in  "  me." 
Draw  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  rising  and  forward 
movement  of  the  tongue.  The  action  of  the  lips  and  lower 
jaw  should  also  be  noticed.  If  the  teacher  sketches  on  the 
board  the  position  of  the  tongue  in  pronouncing  the  front 
vowel  "  e  "  in  "  me,"  and  the  back  vowel  "  oo  "  in  "  pool," 
the  subject  will  be  clearer.  It  is  also  advisable  that  the 
pupil  should  understand  what  is  meant  by  a  voiced  and  a 
voiceless  consonant.  The  difference  is  easily  grasped,  and 
once  known,  considerable  time  is  saved  in  correcting  mis- 
takes in  initial  "  s,"  final  "  b,  d,"  etc.  An  easy  way  to  bring 


62  THE    TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

out  the  distinction  clearly  is  to  have  the  pupils  close  the  ear 
passages  with  the  fingers,  or  place  the  hand  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  or  on  the  Adam's  apple,  and  note  the  difference  between 
"t"  in  "pit,"  and  "d"  in  "pad."  For  examples,  take 
such  words  as  :  pat,  pad ;  bat,  bad ;  cats,  cads ;  catch,  cadge ; 
bus,  buzz;  sown,  zone;  cage,  gauge ;  etc.  When  the  German 
pronunciation  begins,  exercises  using  various  pairs  can  easily 
be  constructed. 

As  given  by  Vietor  in  his  "  Lesebuch,"  p.  4. 

Voiced.  Voiceless. 

b  p  Bein,  Pein. 

d  t  dir,  Tier. 

g  k  Guss,  Kuss. 

v  f  wie,  Vieh. 

z  s  Keise,  reisse. 

g  (in  Logis)  sch  (Lo)gis,  Schie(ne). 

It  is  necessary  also  that  the  pupil  should  realize  the  in- 
adequacy and  unreliability  of  so-called  orthography  as  a  key 
to  correct  pronunciation.  The  same  symbol  often  expresses 
a  variety  of  sounds,  or  different  symbols  express  the  same 
sound,  e.  g.,  "fane,  fain,  feign."  He  must  be  taught  the 
importance  of  hearing  in  acquiring  a  new  language,  and  be- 
ginning with  the  mother-tongue,  learn  to  isolate  the  various 
sounds  in  a  word.  Pupils  often  think  at  first  that  isolating 
sounds  is  synonymous  with  spelling.  "Name"  becomes, 
then,  "  N-A-M-E,"  instead  of  giving  the  phonetic  value  of 
each  letter :  "  n-ei-m."  In  this  way  the  pupil's  attention 
will  be  drawn  to  our  own  sound  system. 

We  are  now  ready  to  begin  German  pronunciation  itself, 
and  there  are  two  ways  open  to  us.  We  can  either  begin 
with  simple  words  to  bring  out  the  different  vowels  and  con- 


PRONUNCIATION.  63 

sonants  systematically,  or  we  can  begin  at  once  with  con- 
nected words,  a  conversation,  such  as  is  found  in  Thomas's 
grammar,1  in  which  the  various  sounds  come  haphazard. 
In  either  case  sounds  will  be  isolated,  hints  given  wherever 
difficulties  arise,  practice  in  words  and  in  the  sentence.  A 
selection  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  is  apparently  more  inter- 
esting to  classes,  although  by  the  time  the  selection  is  thor- 
oughly studied  one  may  hardly  dare  to  call  it  interesting 
any  longer.  In  Germany  short  easy  poems  often  form  the 
basis  for  the  first  work  in  pronunciation.  For  example  see 
the  French  translation  of  "Ich  hatt'  einen  Kamerad" — 
"j'avais  un  camarade,"  in  Quiehl's  book.2 

Let  us  take  for  example  the  opening  lines  from  Thomas, 
p.  24. 

"  Guten  Morgen  !     Wie  befinden  Sie  sich  ? 

"  Danke,  recht  gut.     Und  wie  geht  es  Ihnen  heute  ? 

"  So  ziemlich ;  nur  habe  ich  ein  wenig  Kopfweh." 

The  teacher  repeats  the  first  sentence  slowly,  but  nat- 
urally, two  or  three  times,  giving  the  meaning  wherever 
necessary.  The  pupils  listen  and  imitate.  Throughout 
the  exercise  the  books  are  closed.  In  fact  until  all  the 
sounds  have  been  gone  over  in  the  colloquy,  no  books 
are  required  by  the  pupils.  The  first  work  in  pronuncia- 
tion should  be  an  exercise  in  correct  hearing  and  imita- 
tion. Individual  letters  and  words  may  be  written  on  the 
board  if  necessary  for  clearness  of  explanation.  But  the 
principal  thing  to  remember  is  that  we  wish  the  pupils  to 

1  "A Practical  German  Grammar,"  Thomas,  New  York. 

2  "  Franzosische  Aussprache  und  Sprachfertigkeit,"  Quiehl,  Marburg, 
1899,  p.  115. 


64  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

give  their  attention  to  hearing  and  imitating  alone,  and  not 
have  it  diverted,  as  it  surely  is  by  the  presence  of  the  open 
book  where  the  strange  characters  and  words  appear  in  print. 
After  it  has  been  imitated  by  a  number  of  pupils,  the  teacher 
takes  up  the  important  points  to  be  kept  in  mind.  In  the 
first  word  "  guten,"  the  long  vowel  "  u,"  and  the  obscure 
vowel  in  "  en. "  With  regard  to  "  u, "  the  rounding 
should  be  insisted  upon,  followed  by  practice  on  easy 
words.  The  vowel  glide  in  "guten"  is  best  taught  by 
imitation.  In  "  Morgen,"  the  "  o  "  requires  isolation  and 
practising.  Try  to  get  as  good  an  "  r "  as  possible,  even 
if  not  trilled.  We  can  then  practise  the  vowels  "  u-o, 
o-u."  We  now  take  up  the  phrase  "Guten  Morgen"  again, 
and  following  the  teacher,  individual  pupils,  and  the  class  as 
a  whole,  repeat  it. 

The  second  phrase  contains  much  material  for  discussion, 
long  and  short  "  i,"  the  voiced  consonant  "  w,"  and  the  cor- 
responding voiceless  "  f,"  the  prefix  "  be,"  the  voiced  "  s," 
and  the  "ich"  sound.  See  that  the  vowels  end  as  they 
begin.  Draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  short  "i"  is 
different  in  quality  as  well  as  quantity  from  the  long  "  i." 
A  short  "  i "  prolonged  does  not  become  the  sound  long  "  i." 
Speak  of  the  difference  in  the  tenseness  of  the  tongue  in  giving 
the  close  long  "i,"  and  the  open  short  "i."  Practise  on 
"  I,  i,  i,  i,  I,  i."  Bring  out  the  difference  between  "  w  "  and 
"  f,"  and  practise  first  sounds,  "  f-v,  f-v,  f-v,"  then  words 
like  "  wie-Vieh,  Vieh-wie."  A  common  fault  is  to  pro- 
nounce the  prefix  "  be  "  with  an  "  e  "  sound,  instead  of  very 
much  like  "  a  "  in  "  comma  "  (Hempl).  Practise  on  voiceless 
and  voiced  "  s  "  sound,  then  words  like  "  weisen-weissen." 


PRONUNCIATION.  65 

First  give  exercises  on  "  ch  "  alone,  with  a  few  front  vowels, 
"  ich,  dich,  sich,  frech,"  before  taking  up  such  a  word  as 
"  nicht "  or  "  Kirche."  After  the  pupils  have  mastered  the 
"  ich  "  sound,  give  exercises  such  as  "  dich-dick,  dick-dich." 
In  the  next  phrase,  get  a  pnre  "a"  sound.  Practice  is 
necessary  with  the  mouth  wide  open.  In  "  echt "  we  go  one 
step  farther  in  learning  the  "  ich  "  sound  with  "  t."  Pupils 
often  carelessly  pronounce  "  und  "  as  "  un."  Emphasize 
the  voiceless  "d  "  in  "  und  "  so  that  when  the  pupils  see  the 
word  printed  they  will  not  fall  into  error.  In  "  heute  "  the 
diphthong  is  not  exactly  like  "oi"  in  "oil."  The  first 
element  is  the  short  "  o "  we  have  practised  in  "  Post " ; 
the  second,  short  "i"  or  "ii."  The  lips  must  be  suffi- 
ciently rounded,  at  least  for  the  first  element.  The  "  Deut- 
sche Biihnenaussprache  "  gives  rounding  for  both  elements, 
much  like  "  6  +  o." l  The  next  sentence  introduces  the 
difficult  German  initial  "  z."  A  combination  of  "  Fitz  "  and 
"  iemlich  "  often  helps,  but  continual  practice  and  correction 
are  necessary  for  this  troublesome  sound.  Try  to  get  the 
pupils  to  isolate  the  "ts  "  sound  correctly,  exaggerating  it  so 
that  it  sounds  like  the  hissing  of  steam  from  under  the 
cylinder  of  a  locomotive  when  just  starting.  Practise  voice- 
less "  s  "  and  "  z  "  together.  Pupils  usually  pronounce  "  nur  " 
to  rhyme  with  "  newer."  Avoid  "  habe(r)ich."  "  Ig  "  in 
"  wenig  "  is  the  "  ich  "  sound.  "  Kopfweh  "  is  often  care- 
lessly pronounced  as  if  spelled  "  Kopweh."  The  sound 
"pf"  is  more  easily  acquired  finally  than  initially.  Instead 
of  making  the  complete  closure  for  the  bi-labial  voiceless 
stop  "  p,"  change  to  the  labio-dental  voiceless  spirant  "  f." 

1  "Deutsche  Biihnenaussprache,"  p.  54. 
6 


66  THE  TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

In  this  way  the  work  proceeds,  at  the  rate  of  about  five 
or  six  sentences  a  day.  Each  lesson  should  begin  with  a 
review  of  the  known  sounds  and  sentences.  The  work  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  repetition  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
the  individual  pupil,  and  the  class  as  a  whole,  in  the  man- 
ner given  above.  After  the  second  or  third  day  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  spend  all  the  time  on  the  passage  for  pro- 
nunciation. Questions  and  answers  about  the  common  ob- 
jects in  the  school-room  will  afford  a  change,  and  at  the 
same  time  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  of  putting  into 
practice  the  new  sounds.  Thus  far  the  pupils  have  used  no 
books,  and  no  home  preparation  has  been  required,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  allow  the  pupils  to  devote  their  whole  attention 
to  getting  the  new  sounds  accurately.  The  printed  page 
would  only  be  disturbing.  We  must  now,  however,  begin 
the  study  of  the  orthography,  first  on  the  sentences  which 
are  well  known.  The  peculiarities  of  the  German  letters 
and  spelling  may  well  be  explained.  After  the  whole 
passage  has  been  gone  through  both  ways,  that  is  with  books 
closed  and  books  open,  there  still  remains  considerable  work 
for  the  class  to  do  in  order  to  be  able  to  give  it  accurately 
from  dictation,  and  finally  to  learn  the  whole  passage  by 
heart.  It  adds  interest  for  the  pupils  to  give  it  as  a  dia- 
logue. This  passage,  well  studied,  forms  ever  afterwards  a 
convenient  model  for  what  is  correct.  Many  mistakes  can 
at  once  be  corrected  by  referring  to  a  phrase  in  the  passage 
in  which  the  same  sound  first  occurred. 

But  although  the  class  can  give  fluently,  and  fairly  cor- 
rectly, a  page  of  German,  the  work  in  the  study  of  pro- 
nunciation has  only  just  begun.  In  fact  it  never  ends  during 


PEONUNCIATION.  67 

the  high  school  course.     For  some  time,  two  or  three  months 
at  least,  everything  ought  first  to  be  read  by 

by  t&e  TeadS.  the  teacher-  Jt  ougbt>  however,  to  be  a  model 
reading  of  the  text,  and  to  do  this  the  teacher 
must  practise  beforehand.  It  can  be  laid  down  as  a  general 
rule  that  the  teacher  ought  never  to  read  anything  to  the 
class  which  he  has  not  prepared  beforehand.  I  do  not  mean 
that  the  teacher  is  to  give  an  over-drawn,  theatrical,  ren- 
dering, only  that,  in  an  unaffected  way,  the  thought  and 
character  of  the  selection  should  be  well  brought  out,  with 
as  far  as  that  is  possible,  a  faultless  pronunciation.  Reading 
beforehand  by  the  teacher  takes  a  great  deal  of  time,  but  it 
is  really  the  only  way  to  lay  a  good  foundation.  Difficult 
words  and  phrases  should  be  repeated  by  different  mem- 
bers of  the  class,  and  often  in  concert.  There  is  always 
some  filing  off  of  sharp  corners  to  do  in  the  pronunciation  of 
individual  sounds  and  combinations.  The  teacher  must 
arrange  a  set  of  phonetic  exercises,  corresponding  to  the 
vocal  exercises  of  the  singer,  so  that  the  pupils  shall  make 
progress  in  controlling  the  voice,  and  gain  in  naturalness 
and  fluency.  This  reading  by  the  teacher  should  be  closely 
imitated  by  the  class  in  pronunciation,  in  intonation,  and  in 
fluency.  There  is  danger  of  course  that  the  reading  of  the 
teacher  first,  followed  by  a  pupil,  may  become  too  mechan- 
ical, too  routine,  that  the  pupils  do  not  listen  attentively, 
and  consequently  imitate  badly  or  not  at  all.  To  guard 
against  this  the  pupils  must  be  taught  to  watch  the  teacher, 
and  not  keep  their  eyes  fixed  upon  the  book.  If  the  sen- 
tence is  short,  and  it  naturally  will  be  in  the  first  stage,  the 
pupils  ought  to  learn  to  repeat  it  first  with  books  closed. 


68  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

The  danger  of  giving  a  false  value  to  a  sound  is  then  less 
when  they  come  to  see  it  represented.  At  least  such  a 
method  of  procedure  requires  strict  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  whole  class. 

Teachers  often  make  the  fatal  mistake  of  thinking  that, 
after  the  first  few  weeks,  the  pronunciation  of  the  class  will 
practically  take  care  of  itself.  I  admit  that  the  first  six  or 
The  First  seven  weeks  are  crucial.  If  the  pupils  do 
Weeks,  not  get  the  main  elements  within  that  time 

and  After.  ^  chances  are  that  their  pronunciation  will 
always  be  faulty.  Even  to  keep  up  the  degree  of  accuracy 
the  class  has  gained  in  the  preliminary  course  requires  time, 
alertness,  carefulness,  and  a  great  deal  of  patience.  Ob- 
viously the  teacher  wishes  the  class  to  improve,  and  care 
must  be  taken  all  through  the  course  to  accomplish  this. 

The  reading  lesson  offers  the  best  opportunity  of  strength- 
ening pronunciation.  In  the  exercises  in  conversation  the 
teacher  will  often  let  little  discrepancies  pass.  In  our  own 
language  we  articulate  less  carefully  in  conver- 

Reading  sation.      But   with    the   printed   page   before 

Aloud.  * 

them   a   greater  degree  of  accuracy  must  be 

demanded.  Aim  high,  and  get  a  spirit  awakened  in  the 
class  for  a  high  grade  of  work.  Make  the  pupils  realize 
that,  when  they  read,  they  must  read  their  very  best,  and 
that  the  teacher  will  not  be  satisfied  with  a  slovenly  careless 
style.  They  must  be  taught  to  keep  in  mind  the  physical, 
the  technical  side  of  reading,  and  thus  to  gain  more  and 
more  control  of  their  organs  of  speech.  The  usual  type  of 
reading  exercises  in  a  foreign  language  is  dull,  and  the 
pupils  usually  regard  it  as  something  to  get  over  quickly, 


PRONUNCIATION.  69 

and  they  therefore  read  badly,  with  a  lazy  sort  of  articula- 
tion. Much  of  the  blame  lies  at  the  door  of  the  teacher. 
As  long  as  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  read  any  way  they 
choose,  stumbling  aud  droning,  the  class  cannot  be  blamed 
for  finding  the  time  spent  in  reading  a  chance  to  doze.  There 
must  be  life  in  the  reading,  and  the  teacher  must  be  the 
cause  of  that  life.  He  must  show  plainly  by  his  own  read- 
ing that  he  has  taken  pains  to  prepare  it  beforehand  ;  he 
must  inspire  them  by  his  example  and  by  the  kind  of  cor- 
rections he  makes.  The  work  is  by  no  means  easy.  The 
teacher  ought,  of  course,  to  be  always  vigilant,  not  strict 
one  day  and  careless  the  next.  By  strictness  I  do  not  mean 
fussiuess.  He  should  know  how  much  he  can  fairly  expect 
of  the  class  as  a  whole,  and  of  individuals.  It  is  not 
always  necessary  to  correct  every  little  slip,  if  by  so  doing 
the  pupil  is  worried.  As  a  rule  the  class  should  make  the 
corrections,  for  they  too  must  be  on  the  lookout  for  errors 
and  have  a  fair  spirit  of  rivalry  inculcated.  After  a  sen- 
tence or  section  has  been  read  let  the  class  criticize.  It 
should  also  be  a  general  rule  that  every  member  of  the  class 
should  read  the  lesson  out  loud  in  preparation.  It  is  also  a 
good  plan  to  have  model  readings,  by  assigning  sections  be- 
forehand to  be  carefully  prepared.  After  reading  a  few 
scenes,  or  an  act,  of  a  play,  interest  can  be  aroused  by 
assigning  the  parts  beforehand.  Let  the  characters  take 
their  place  before  the  class,  and  the  rest  of  the  class  listen 
with  closed  books.  Get  the  performers  to  read  with  spirit, 
showing  them  how  to  do  so  if  necessary. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
WORK  IN  SPEAKING. 

ONE  of  the  most  striking  points  one  notices  in  the  work 
of  modern  language  teaching  in  Germany  is  the  prominence 
given  to  a  study  of  the  spoken  language,  especially  in  Real- 
gymnasien,  and  schools  where  French  and  English  classes 
take  the  place  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  course  of  study. 
While  admitting  that  often  the  fluency  and  accuracy  with 
which  the  class  handled  the  foreign  language  was  deserving 
of  great  praise,  I  carried  away  the  feeling  that  undue  empha- 
sis is  being  given  to  this  kind  of  work.  Certainly  the  posi- 
tion of  modern  language  instruction  in  the  United  States 
does  not  warrant  us  in  following  directly  the  lines  marked 
out  by  the  more  prominent  Reformers  in  Germany.  Before 
even  thinking  of  attempting  the  kind  of  work  here,  our 
courses  in  French  and  German  ought  to  extend  over  as 
many  years  as  those  in  the  Realgymnasien,  etc.,  and,  more- 
over, the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  ought  to  be  as  well 
prepared,  pedagogical ly,  as  the  German  teachers,  and  better 
prepared  in  practical  knowledge  of  the  languages  taught. 
For  although  the  German  teacher  of  French  and  English  as 
a  rule  must  be  regarded  as  excellently  equipped  for  a  course 
such  as  can  safely  be  advocated  for  the  United  States,  he 
often  attempts,  in  the  higher  classes,  a  grade  of  work  in  con- 
versation which  really  should  only  be  attempted  by  a  man 
who  can  handle  the  foreign  language  as  easily  as  his  mother- 

70 


WORK  IN  SPEAKING.  71 

tongue.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  teacher  who  approaches 
this  standard  of  excellence  is  the  exception.  If  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  the  majority  of  teachers  of  modern  lan- 
guages in  any  country  will  always  be  wanting  in  practical 
command  of  the  language  sufficient  to  conduct  a  course  of 
study  of  seven,  eight,  or  nine  years,  built  upon  the  basis  of 
the  spoken  word,  we  should  have  to  find  some  other  founda- 
tion in  mapping  out  a  course.  Added  to  this,  there  is  the 
other  argument  stated  before,  namely  that  the  pupil  himself, 
through  lack  of  time  and  interest,  through  lack  of  intensity 
in  the  work,  or  as  the  unavoidable  outcome  of  environment 
and  school  conditions,  is  incapable  of  acquiring  a  com- 
mand of  the  language,  commensurate  with  the  energy  ex- 
pended. On  the  other  hand,  I  wish  to  deal  fairly  with  the 
work  in  speaking  done  in  the  class-room,  and  to  give  oral 
exercises  all  the  time  and  emphasis  that  can  safely  be  given 
them,  at  the  same  time  to  guard  against  attaching  a  false 
value  to  an  important,  though  not  the  most  important,  kind 
of  work  in  a  modern  language  course. 

As  I  have  attempted  to  show  previously,  ability  to  read 
should  be  regarded  as  the  most  momentous  of  the  many 
kinds  of  work  that  go  to  make  up  the  study  of  a  foreign 

language.  Though  there  may  be  no  harm  in 
oral  work?  making  conversation  a  modest  aim  in  itself, 

still  its  great  use  ought  to  be  to  increase  the 
pupil's  power  to  read.  It  is  highly  important  to  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind  that  the  chief  reason  for  conversation  being 
taught  in  school  is  not  to  enable  the  pupils  during  school 
days,  and  afterwards,  to  buy  a  railway  ticket  or  order  a 
a  meal,  but  rather  to  give  them  a  better  grasp  and  insight 


72  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

into  the  common  idioms  and  vocabulary.  The  pupil's 
power  to  read  German  is  increased  indirectly  by  the  fact 
that  work  in  speaking  is  interesting  to  both  teacher  and 
pupil.  There  is  something  natural  in  learning  to  speak  a 
language,  however  modest  the  attempt  may  be,  and  the  innate 
attractiveness  can  be  made  to  exert  a  good  influence  on  the 
work  of  the  class.  The  various  kinds  of  oral  work  make  the 
language  of  books  to  a  certain  degree  alive.  The  forms  and 
uses  of  grammar  cease  to  be  so  mechanical,  so  stiff  and  formal. 
The  ability  to  speak,  even  though  the  subject  and  the 
vocabulary  used  are  very  limited,  requires  that  the  pupil 
should  have  mastered  the  material,  and  his  knowledge  of 

grammar  and  vocabulary  must  be  under  far 
of  Oral  work  greater  control  than  if  required  for  reading  or 

the  writing  of  sentences.  Writing  sentences 
has  long  been  regarded  as  an  important  means  of  strengthen- 
ing the  pupil's  ability  to  use  the  foreign  vocabulary  and  gram- 
matical forms,  etc.,  and  colloquial  practice  we  may  regard  as 
a  kind  of  oral  composition.  In  some  respects  it  is  a  far  better 
form  of  exercise  than  writing.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
more  interesting,  and  keeps  the  whole  class  on  the  alert,  an 
advantage  lies  in  its  being  quicker.  Writing  sentences  is  a 
slow  process  compared  with  giving  them  orally.  While  a  class 
is  writing  one  sentence  illustrative  of  some  rule,  a  dozen  sen- 
tences involving  the  same  rule  can  be  given  orally.  We  can- 
not of  course  do  away  entirely  with  the  written  form.  It  will 
always  be  necessary  as  a  test  of  accuracy  and  average  ability  of 
the  class,  as  to  how  well  they  have  mastered  the  work  in  hand. 
Exclusive  use  of  writing,  however,  as  a  means  of  giving  prac- 
tice in  the  use  of  forms  and  rules  wastes  a  great  deal  of  time. 


WORK    IN   SPEAKING.  73 

The  pupil  acquires  too  as  time  goes  on  a  feeling  for  what 
is  German  or  French.  It  may  not  be  a  very  definite  or 
wide-reaching  feeling  for  what  is  idiomatic,  still  every  little 
we  can  teach  of  "  Sprachgefuhl "  is  important 
^or  *ne  Pupil's  development  in  the  study  of  the 
foreign  tongue.  One  of  the  difficult  things  to 
teach  is  the  right  attitude  of  mind  towards  a  language.  In  the 
old  days  of  ceaseless  translation,  when  the  foreign  language 
existed  only  on  paper  and  was  seldom  heard  in  class,  there 
could  not  be  any  question  of  "  Sprachgefuhl "  as  a  factor  in 
language  work.  Nowadays  we  are  beginning  to  reckon  with 
"Sprachgefuhl"  as  something  exceedingly  important  to 
cultivate.  The  greatest  help  comes,  doubtless,  from  exer- 
cises conversational  in  nature,  where  the  pupil  is  constantly 
required  to  use  the  foreign  language  he  is  studying. 

In  order  to  derive  the  greatest  good  from  colloquial  exer- 
cises they  should  be  clearly  planned  to  do  definite  work. 
We  talk  with  a  purpose,  and  not  simply  to  hear  our  own 
voices.  The  work  in  speaking  should,  at  every 
a  Pur  ose  turn,  be  vitally  connected  with  the  other  work 
of  the  class.  It  should  not  be  regarded  as 
something  outside,  or  at  the  most  only  loosely  linked  with 
the  main  system  —  a  sort  of  relaxation  from  the  study  of 
grammar  or  translation,  without  any  other  clear  ulterior 
motive.  On  the  contrary,  every  step  of  the  work,  be  it  in 
the  study  of  formal  grammar,  or  reading,  or  writing,  ought 
to  receive  the  quickening  influence  which  does  assuredly 
come  from  carefully  arranged  work  done  in  conversation. 
We  must  ever  reject  colloquial  exercises  that  lead  to  nothing, 
that  are  mere  talk.  Such  work  is  unworthy  of  the  school. 


74  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

The  aimless,  rambling,  conversations  often  met  with  in  books 
of  the  so-called  Natural  Method  are  to  be  condemned.  Of 
course  there  are  occasions  when,  for  the  sake  of  variety  in  the 
work  or  review,  it  is  advisable  to  see  what  power  the  class 
has  acquired  in  speaking.  But  such  work  presupposes  that 
the  whole  range  of  ideas  the  class  are  called  upon  to  use  has 
been  thoroughly  worked  over  beforehand,  though  perhaps  in  a 
different  form  or  order. 

Colloquial  practice  must  also  not  only  begin  with  the 
simple,  but  must  also  deal  with  the  simple  for  a  considerable 
time.     The  increase  in  the  difficulty  of  the  exercises  will  be 
only  a  very  gradual  one.     The  gain  of  the 
pupils  ought  to  consist  more  largely  in  a  greater 
control  of  the  limited  field  of  vocabulary  and 
grammar.     There  should  be  an  ever  increasing  accuracy, 
combined  with  greater  freedom. 

It  is  now  almost  everywhere  admitted  that  to  reap  the 
greatest  good  from  colloquial  exercises,  it  is  essential  that 
they  should  begin  practically  the  first  week  of  the  new  study, 
and  continue  unbrokenly  until  the  last  week, 
o    i^0  It  is  an  exploded  idea  that  the  pupil  should 

first  learn  his  grammar  thoroughly,  learn  to 
translate  both  ways,  and  then,  in  the  upper  classes  as  a  sort 
of  finishing  process,  be  taught  a  number  of  practical  collo- 
quial expressions.  Such  a  plan  must  always  court  failure, 
and  could  hardly  end  in  more  than  a  few  phrases  learned  by 
heart  and  soon  to  be  forgotten.  The  ability  to  use  a  language 
freely  in  speaking  is  no  doubt  positively  influenced  by  an 
extended  reading  knowledge  of  that  language.  The  power 
to  read  will  give  the  pupils  a  certain  feeling  of  security ;  it 


WOKK   IN  SPEAKING.  75 

acts  as  ballast.  The  ability  to  speak,  however,  is  not  the 
natural  outcome  of  the  ability  to  read,  for  they  are  two  differ- 
ent accomplishments.  Moreover  in  order  to  secure  any  ade- 
quate coordination  of  the  physical  and  psychical  factors,  so 
necessary  in  speaking,  it  is  fundamentally  important  that 
speaking  should  receive  due  attention  during  the  whole 
course,  and  not  simply  during  the  last  part  of  it. 

"  Conversation  days  "  also  are  likely  to  fail  in  producing 
the  desired  results,  either  by  being  held  at  too  long  intervals, 
or  by  spending  too  long  at  one  time  on  the 
exercises  so  as  to  cause  monotony.  Colloquial 
work  every  lesson  should  be  the  general  rule, 
work  intimately  connected  at  every  turn  with  the  other  lines 
of  work,  definitely  planned  to  produce  definite  results. 

There  is  no  lack  of  material  to  use  for  conversation.     The 
chief  difficulty  arises  when  we  try  to  sift  and 
a(^aP^  ^  *°  our  present  purpose.     There  are  in 
general  two  different  types  of  work,  both  im- 
portant for  pupils  of  any  age  : 

1.  Conversation  based  upon  objects  in  the  class-room  and 
vicinity  ;  later,  maps  and  pictures. 

2.  Conversation  based  upon  the  reading  book. 

A  discussion  of  the  first  kind  carries  with  it  also  a  short 
discussion  of  the  "  Anschauungsprincip "  as  applied  to  the 
teaching  of  modern  languages.     This  system,  i.  e.,  the  show- 
ing of  objects,   models,  pictures,  the  use  of 
unteir^iit1*8"    ges^uresj  mimicry,  and  the  association  of  the 
corresponding   foreign  words,  has   long   been 
regarded  as  a  valuable  factor  in  the  teaching  of  languages 
It  was  thought,  and  this  view  is  still  held  by  many,  that  by 


76  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

the  direct  appeal  to  the  sense  of  sight  and  the  simultaneous 
naming  of  the  object,  a  direct  association  is  formed  in  the 
mind  of  the  learner  between  the  object  and  the  new  foreign 
symbol.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  intervention  of  the 
mother-tongue. 

The  usual  process,  i.  e.,  by  way  of  translation,  is  to  asso- 

ciate the  percept,  "P,"  first  with  the  appro- 
is  tnod  priate  word  in  the  mother-tongue,  and  to  then 

substitute  the  new  word  in  the  foreign  language, 
and  vice  versa.     "We  accordingly  have  the  following  scheme  : 

p  P  =  Percept 

|   /F  F  =  Word  in  the  foreign  tongue. 

M  —  Word  in  the  mother  tongue. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  we  could  eliminate  the  process  P  —  M, 
i.  e.y  if  we  could  eliminate  the  mother-tongue 
as  a  fac<:orj  and  go  directly  P  —  F,  there  would 
be  a  distinct  gain,  other  things  being  equal. 
This  may  be  shown  thus  : 


M 

It  is  exceedingly  doubtful  whether  by  use  of  objects,  etc., 
this  is  the  psychological  process  of  pupils,  the  view  held  by 
Franke.1  With  mature  pupils  their  knowledge  of  the  mother- 

tongue  is  far  too  strong;  and  active  to  be  elimi- 
Is  the  Direct 

Method  nated  so  easily.     The  path  of  association  be- 

tween the  word  and  what  the  word  stands  for 

is  far  too  deep.     At  any  rate,  however,  it  is  certainly  true 

that  this  kind  of  instruction  makes  the  association  between 

1  "Die  Praktische  Spracherlernung  auf  Grund  der  Psychologie  und  der 
Physiologic  der  Sprache,"  Franke,  Leipzig,  1883,  3d  ed.,  1896. 


WORK    IN   SPEAKING.  77 

the  object  and  the  new  symbol  quicker  and  surer.  The  old 
symbol  in  the  mother-tongue  is  kept  in  the  back-ground.  It 
may  thrust  itself  between  now  and  then  in  the  learner's  mind, 
still  in  a  short  time,  through  neglect,  the  path  P  —  M 
falls  into  disuse,  and  in  the  place  of  it  the  path  P  —  F  is 
followed. 

With  young  children  the  use  of  objects  and,  later,  pic- 
tures, offers  one  of  the  most  attractive  introductions  to  the  new 
language,  and  with  skill  can  be  carried  on  for  a  considerable 

time.     It  teaches  a  large  vocabulary  in  a  short 
Use  of  Objects  ' 

with  Young  time  which  the  teacher  can  arrange  as  syste- 
Chiidren.  matically  as  he  desires,  and  which  is  easy  to 

control  and  to  build  upon.  The  teacher  knows  what  he 
has  done  and  what  is  to  be  done.  Moreover  "  Anschauungs- 
unterricht "  gives  the  teacher  and  class  something  definite  to 
talk  about  and  something  capable  of  development  along 
various  lines,  grammatical  as  well  as  subject  matter.  The 
exercises  can  be  made  interesting  for  both  young  and  old, 
for  although  the  objects  in  the  school-room  and  those  repre- 
sented in  the  various  pictures  are  well  known,  the  fact  that 
they  are  learning  their  names  in  a  new  language  brings  in 
an  important  element  of  freshness  into  the  instruction.  Be- 
sides this  the  pupil  is  kept  interested  because  he  is  conscious 
of  his  power  growing.  The  work  is  simple,  and  he  feels  he 
can  do  it,  that  the  teacher  is  not  expecting  the  impossible  of 
him.  The  pupil  gains  confidence,  and  hence  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  get  him  to  talk,  to  ask  questions  as  well  as  to  answer 
them.  "Where  the  class  has  reached  this  important  stage, 
willingness  to  talk,  you  find  attention  and  interest,  so  funda- 
mentally essential  in  all  school  work.  The  importance  of 


78  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

the  use  of  objects  for  the  teaching  of  grammar  will  be  best 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  grammar. 

With  young  pupils  considerable  time  can  be  spent  in 
teaching  various  objects  in  the  school-room,  the  doors,  walls, 
floors,  ceiling,  windows,  tables,  chairs,  ink,  pens,  books, 

etc..  and  the  actions  necessary  in  school  routine. 
Oral  Material.    TT     ,       .  .       .  * 

Used  with  these  are   common   adjectives    of 

form  and  color,  a  few  adverbs  of  position,  and  the  more 
common  prepositions.  The  teacher  may  begin  with  the 
objects  in  the  school-room,  but  gradually  the  horizon 
widens  until  the  life  of  the  pupil  in  school,  then  out  of 
school,  is  dealt  with  in  the  daily  oral  exercises.  The  new 
"  programmes  de  1'enseignement  des  langues  vivantes,"  is- 
sued by  the  French  Minister  of  Instruction,1  show  how  this 
work  can  be  systematized.  The  work  of  the  Classe  de 
sixi&ne,  the  beginning  class,  will  suffice  to  make  this  clear. 

CLASSE  DE  SIXIEME. 

L'enfant  a  Pe'cole  : 

Ce  dont  I'6l6ve  se  sert  en  classe ; 

Ses  relations  avec  les  personnes  qui  1'entourent ; 

Principaux  actes  scolaires  (j'Scris,  je  lis,  etc.). 

Mouvements  dans  la  classe ;  les  parties  de  la  classe. 

Maniements  des  objets  scolaires. 

La  r6cre"ation.     Les  jeux. 
Les  nombres  (cardinaux  et  ordinaux)  : 

Calculs  elSmentaires.     Poids  et  mesures. 
Le  temps  et  la  temperature  : 

1  "Programmes  de  1'enseignement  des  langues  vivantes,"  15th  October, 
1900. 


WOEK   IN   SPEAKING.  79 

La  division  du  temps.     L'age. 

Le   chaud  et  le   froid.     Les  saisons  (notions  tr6s  som- 

maires.) 
Le  corps  humain  et  les  besoins  corporals  : 

La  nourriture  ;  le  vetement. 

Operations  des  sens. 

Sant6  et  maladie. 
La  maison  et  la  famille  : 

Parties   de   la  maison ;    diffe'rentes    pieces  ;    meubles  et 
ustensiles. 

Les    membres  de  la  famille ;    leurs  occupations ;  scenes 
familiales. 

Later,  when  the  possibilities  of  the  school,  house,  and 
garden  have  been  exhausted,  the  outer  world  can  be  made 
more  vivid  by  the  introduction  of  maps,  plans  of  cities,  and 
various  pictures.  With  young  pupils,  the 
Holzel  "Wandbilder"  (size  about  55  x  35 
inches),  usually  those  representing  the  seasons,  can  long  be 
used  with  advantage.  With  older  pupils  too  extended  use 
would  be  likely  to  pall  upon  them.  There  is  danger  of 
their  soon  finding  the  instruction  stupid  and  beneath  them, 
and  as  a  result  showing  lack  of  interest.  Illustrative 
material  by  way  of  historical  pictures,  scenes  of  German 
town  and  country  life,  undoubtedly  have  an  assured  place  in 
all  work,  but  with  more  mature  pupils  they  should  be 
regarded  largely  as  supplementary,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
some  part  of  the  work  clearer  and  more  attractive,  and  not 
as  something  whose  principal  use  is  to  aid  in  teaching  the 
language  itself.  With  the  "Wandbilder"  the  picture  is 
often  studied  as  a  whole  at  first,  in  order  that  the  class  may 


80  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

get  a  general  idea  of  it.  The  characters  are  identified,  and 
their  relations  to  one  another  are  brought  out.  In  order 
that  they  might  not  lack  the  personal  element,  Alge  gives 
names  to  each  of  the  characters  represented.  After  this 
general  elementary  survey  of  the  picture,  it  is  studied  in 
detail.  The  scene  is,  for  example,  divided  off  into  sections 
and  studied  accordingly.  It  will  easily  be  seen  that  there  is 
practically  no  end  to  the  discussion  of  such  a  picture. 
There  is  indeed  great  danger  that  the  teacher,  in  attempting 
to  be  thorough,  will  teach  too  many  words  for  which  the 
pupils  will  later  have  no  use.  A  possible  objection  to  the 
Holzel  pictures,  perhaps,  is  that  they  are  too  agricultural  in 
character,  especially  for  city  children.  Considerable  care  is 
accordingly  necessary  not  to  go  too  far,  not  to  teach  about 
things  for  which  there  is  no  latent  interest,  and  especially 
about  the  details  of  farm-yard  implements  which  the  ordi- 
nary educated  man  is  not  expected  to  know. 

Another  fatal  danger  comes  from  either  bad  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  or  inability  to  give  life  and 
variety  to  the  work  of  the  class.  It  is  easy  to  fall  into  the 

habit  of  asking  the  same  kind  of  question  of 
"Was  1st  das?"  ,TT  ._.. 

the  "  Was  ist  das  ?     type.     The  work  must  be 

graded ;  it  must  also  be  as  varied  as  a  clever  teacher  can 
devise.  The  exercises  must  lose  the  woodenness  necessary 
at  first,  and  gradually  become  as  nearly  natural  conversation 
as  possible.  The  teacher  will  begin  by  directing  the  con- 
versation on  the  picture,  or  part  of  it.  Afterwards  he  can 
send  a  pupil  to  the  picture  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  pointer, 
ask  questions,  or  let  him  describe  what  he  sees.  Or,  two 
pupils  may  imagine  they  represent  characters  appearing  in 


WORK   IN   SPEAKING.  81 

the  picture,  and  act  a  dialogue.  This  gives  them  an  oppor- 
tunity to  utilize  other  material  they  have  mastered,  using 
the  picture  as  a  starting  point.  Numerous  other  ways  of 
employing  Holzel  pictures  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
teacher  as  the  work  goes  on.  The  great  advantage  of  using 
these  pictures  is  that  it  gives  both  teacher  and  pupils  some- 
thing definite  to  work  with.  The  conversation  is  not  in 
the  air,  so  to  speak.  For  further  suggestions  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  Holzel  and  other  wall  pictures  I  must  refer  the 
reader  to  bibliography,  where  several  books  on  the  subject 
will  be  found.  The  extent  to  which  this  kind  of  instruction 
should  be  developed  varies  with  the  emphasis  laid  upon  the 
reading  book  as  the  center  of  instruction.  In  fact  there  are 
at  present  two  schools  in  Germany,  the  one  basing  its 
instruction  largely  on  the  principle  of  "  Anschauung,"  the 
other  on  the  reading  book  without  however  neglecting  some 
of  the  advantages  that  come  from  the  use  of  objects  and  pic- 
tures, especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  course. 

The  Gouin  method  also  suggests  a  field  for  oral  practice. 
One  of  its  characteristics  is  the  arrangement  of  each  lesson 
into  a  group  of  twenty-five,  or  so,  short  sentences,  connected 
in  subject,  and  following  each  other  according 
*°  cnron°logical  sequence.  Moreover,  each 
short  sentence  is  capable  of  being  "  pictured  " 
in  the  mind.  A  lesson  on  opening  the  door,  for  instance, 
would  begin  in  German  : 

1.  Ich  gehe  auf  die  Ttir  zu. 

2.  Ich  nahere  mich  der  Tiir. 

3.  Ich  nahere  mich  der  Tiir  noch  mehr. 

4.  Ich  nahere  mich  der  Tur  immer  mehr. 
7 


82  '  THE   TEACHING    OF    GERMAN. 

5.  Ich  gelange  zu  der  Tur. 

6.  Ich  bleibe  bei  der  Tiir  stehen. 

7.  Ich  strecke  den  Arm  aus. 

8.  Ich  erfasse  den  Griff. 

9.  Ich  drehe  den  Griff,  etc. 

The  above  will  be  sufficiently  suggestive  for  our  present 
purpose.  For  a  study  of  this  extremely  interesting  method, 
I  refer  the  reader  to  Kron's  book,  which  contains  a  good 
bibliography.1  Also  see  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of 
Twelve,  p.  1399,  on  "The  Psychological  Method." 

It  will  be  easily  seen  that  pupils  can  arrange  a  number  of 
actions  on  this  plan  and  clothe  them  in  the  proper  language, 
or  the  teacher  can  outline  a  plan  of  procedure  and  the  pupils 
fill  in  the  details.  In  a  description  I  have  somewhere  read 
of  one  of  Direktor  Walter's  classes,  for  example,  a  pupil 
was  told  to  describe  a  trip  to  Marburg,  £t  la  Gouin  : 

1.  I  go  to  the  door. 

2.  I  open  the  door. 

3.  I  go  out. 

4.  I  go  down  the  stairs. 

5.  I  walk  across  the  hall. 

6.  I  leave  the  house. 

7.  I  am  in  the  street. 

8.  I  see  a  car  passing. 

9.  I  motion  to  the  conductor. 
10.  The  car  stops,  etc. 

The  catalogue  of  successive  actions  now  gives  way  to  con- 
versation more  natural  in  character.     Another  pupil  acts  the 

1"Die  Methode  Gouin  oder  das  Serien  System    in    Theorie    und 
Praxis,"  Kron,  Marburg,  2d  ed.,  1900. 


WORK   IN   SPEAKING.  83 

part  of  the  conductor,  and  asks  the  boy  how  far  he  is  going. 
Then  follows  a  brief  conversation  about  tickets  and  changing 
money.  The  short  sentences  are  again  resumed  when  the  boy 
tells  how  he  takes  a  ticket,  and  then  goes  to  the  waiting 
room  to  eat  something.  Another  pupil  plays  the  part  of 
the  waiter  at  the  buffet,  and  recommends  different  things,  etc. 

For  other  examples  of  work  done  in  this  school  see  Direc- 
tor Walter's  book.1 

It  is  also  worth  while  to  draw  attention  to  another  kind 

of  work  in  speaking  seen  at  Frankfort,  which  reminds  one 

of  the  Gouin  method  although  based  upon  the  "  something 

seen,"    visualization    proper,    and    not    upon 

It  Fr^nWfcrt1     ^e  mental  visualization   of  Gouin.     As   the 

teacher   enters    the   room,    for   example,    the 

movements  of  the  teacher  are  either  described  by  individual 

pupils  or  by  the  class  : 

1.  You  are  entering  the  room. 

2.  You  are  stepping  onto  the  platform. 

3.  You  are  pushing  back  your  chair. 

4.  You  are  sitting  down. 

5.  You  are  opening  the  ink-stand. 

6.  You  are  taking  the  pen. 

7.  You  are  dipping  it  into  the  ink-stand,  etc. 

Actions  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  are  also  described  by  the 
boy  performing  the  action,  or  by  one  of  his  comrades.  For 
further  examples  of  this  kind  of  work,  see  Walter,  p.  14. 

How  far  this  type  of  oral  work  can  be  used  in  secondary 
schools  in  the  United  States,  must  be  decided  by  each 

'"Englisch  nach  dem  Frankfurter  Reformplan,"  Walter,  Marburg, 
pp.  65-66. 


84  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

teacher  for  himself.  It  is  certainly  done  at  Frankfort  with 
a  great  deal  of  spirit  by  the  young  pupils,  and  I  see  no 
reason  why,  for  the  sake  of  variety,  similar  work  cannot  be 
attempted  with  beginning  classes  in  the  lower  classes  of  high 
school.  Teachers  must  be  on  their  guard,  however,  against 
overdoing  it. 

For  high  school  pupils,  especially  for  those  who  do  not 
begin  German  until  the  second  or  third  year,  there  will  be 
little  or  no  time  for  the  Holzel  "  Wandbilder."  The  second 

kind  of  work  in  speaking  will  be  found  more 
Regular  versus 

Constructed  adapted  to  their  requirements,  namely  conver- 
Terts-  sation  based  upon  the  reading  or  a  constructed 

text.  It  is  a  mistaken  view  of  the  matter  to  suppose  that  a 
beginner  in  high  school  should  be  able  to  answer  questions 
on  an  original  German  text  filled  with  grammatical  and  syn- 
tactical material  which  he  cannot  be  expected,  as  yet,  to 
know.  German  is  far  too  difficult  a  language  for  that,  un- 
less the  teacher  is  contented  with  the  pupil's  learning  things 
not  understood  off  by  heart.  We  must  be  systematic  in  the 
study  of  German  just  as  it  is  necessary  in  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek.  If  we  are  not,  I  see  nothing  but  chaotic  con- 
fusion, or  at  least  inaccurate  knowledge,  a  mere  smattering 
of  the  fundamental  facts.  The  study  of  English  and  French 
is  not  parallel,  for  both  languages  have  few  formal  difficul- 
ties compared  with  German.  In  the  very  first  weeks  of  in- 
struction in  these  languages  the  skillful  teacher  can  set  a 
large  amount  of  material  in  motion.  The  pupil  needs  a 
vocabulary,  to  be  sure,  but  provided  with  this  necessity,  we 
can  easily  set  to  work.  Compare  the  English  "  the  "  with 
the  forms  of  the  German  "  der  "  j  the  simplicity  of  the  de- 


WORK   IN   SPEAKING.  85 

clension  of  the  majority  of  English  nouns,  with  the  difficul- 
ties that  beset  the  learner  of  German  declensions.  But  any- 
one who  has  had  experience  in  teaching  German  knows  how 
circumscribed  conversation  must  be  until  the  main  body  of 
German  forms  is  known  to  the  pupil  through  diligent 
study  and  abundant  practice.  It  will  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  ideas  expressed  in  the  chapter  on  Reading,  that  the  first 
texts,  although  connected  in  form,  should  be  constructed 
texts,  very  much  like  those  found  in  Thomas's  "  Practical 
German  Grammar."  Both  in  vocabulary  and  in  the  gram- 
matical principles  involved  they  should  be  progressive  and 
suited  to  the  age  and  requirements  of  the  pupils.  The  only 
objection  that  can  possibly  be  made  to  such  a  kind  of  text  is 
that  it  is  likely  to  be  too  obviously  artificial,  and  hence 
stilted  and  dull.  If  this  great  difficulty  can  be  overcome, 
and  it  has  been  overcome  in  the  grammar  cited  above,  then 
there  is  certainly  no  better  material  for  oral  exercises  for 
beginners.  The  pupil  is  fed  on  the  right  kind  of  vocabu- 
lary, and  the  grammatical  difficulties  are  suitable  to  his  pres- 
ent knowledge  of  the  language.  As  the  oral  work,  arranged 
from  the  interesting  constructed  text,  does  not  ask  too  much 
of  the  class,  there  will  certainly  be  far  less  of  parrot-like  re- 
plies employing  principles  not  understood,  a  state  of  affairs 
easily  imaginable  where  ordinary  texts  are  chosen,  which 
contain  perhaps  a  large  number  of  forms  and  principles  as 
yet  not  gone  over  with  the  class.  There  will  be  necessarily 
memory  work  involved,  whether  the  reading  text  is  made  to 
order  or  we  select  an  original  text.  Still  on  the  one  hand, 
the  memorizing  is  based  upon  an  understanding  of  the  prin- 
ciples involved,  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  may,  or  may  not 


86  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

be.  But  although  the  field  iu  which  the  beginner  works  at 
first  is  very  small,  still  a  great  many  interesting  oral  exer- 
cises can  be  arranged  by  the  teacher  who  is  anxious  to 
strengthen  this  side  of  the  instruction.  It  only  needs  care- 
ful thought  to  utilize  every  possible  means.  It  goes  without 
saying  that,  once  the  fledglings  have  learned  to  fly,  the  study 
of  the  constructed  text  is  at  an  end,  and  is  superseded  by 
original  German  texts,  either  the  regular  reading,  or  if  this 
happens  to  be  unsuitable,  by  other  material  chosen  with  this 
object  in  view.  Personally  I  have  found  that  a  collection 
of  short  anecdotes  was  suitable  for  the  younger  classes. 

Sooner  or  later  some  such  book  as  Kron's  "  German  Daily 

Life " 1  ought  to  be  used  to  supplement  the  oral  exercises 

based  on  the  reading.     The  book  is  far  too  full  to  be  taken 

up  more  than  here  and  there  in  the  different 

Li?eTaKron!ly  chaPters-  The  teacher  sh<>uld  pck  out  the 
more  interesting  and  essential  points,  so  that 
at  the  end  the  class  may  have  some  definitely  planned  con- 
versation work  on  typical  points  of  German  life.  It  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  pupils  should  possess  the  book. 
The  teacher  can  himself  use  Kron's  book  as  a  basis,  and 
talk  over  with  the  class  the  important  things  he  wishes  them 
to  remember.  An  interesting  teacher,  who  has  a  good  com- 
mand of  the  language,  can  undoubtedly  make  the  work  very 
instructive  and  valuable  to  a  class  already  possessing  some 
fluency  in  using  the  language.  The  book  itself  is  often 
dull  reading,  too  much  like  a  catalogue  at  times,  and  needs 
a  good  teacher  to  put  life  into  it.  I  have  seen  it  taught 
well,  following  the  plan  suggested  above  of  developing  the 
1  "German  Daily  Life,"  Kron,  London  and  New  York. 


WORK   IN  SPEAKING.  87 

material  in  the  class,  the  teacher  alone  using  the  book  as  a 
guide.  There  was  life  in  the  lesson,  the  language  was 
simpler  and  more  natural,  and  still  the  essential  points  of 
the  book  were  brought  out. 

Another  book  exceedingly  helpful  to  the  teacher  for  sup- 
plementary material  for  conversation,  is  in  itself  a  book  of 
dialogues  originally  written  for  the  study  of  French,  but 
containing  a  carefully  edited  German  transla- 
tion.   The  book  is  "  Franzosische  Sprechubun- 
Dialogues. 

gen,"  by  Storm.1  The  dialogues  are  ar- 
ranged to  illustrate  various  chapters  of  French  grammar, 
and  the  teacher  will,  after  studying  it,  see  many  ways  in 
which  he  can  utilize  parts  of  the  book  for  class  instruction. 
It  is  not  a  book  for  the  class  to  have,  however,  its  arrange- 
ment is  not  suitable  for  that.  But  some  of  the  dialogues  can 
be  given  to  the  class,  and  made  use  of  for  conversation  and 
for  composition,  as  I  have  described,  p.  157.  Other  books 
which  may  be  used  for  both  conversation  and  composition  are 
the  German  "  Echo  "  books,  published  by  Giegler,  Leipzig. 
For  other  books  see  chapter  on  Reading,  p.  162. 

The  foundation  of  all  work  in  speaking  is  imitation  of 
something  with  which  the  class  i?  familiar.     In  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  study,  while  the  teacher  is  laying  the  founda- 
tion for  a  goocJ  pronunciation,  the  answers  of 
The  Foundation  ,1  .1        «n  i      ji     i  ,v  •  ,1 

of  Oral  Work  pupils  \r,ill  hardly  be  anything  more  than 

a  repetition   in  the  appropriate  form  of  the 

teacher's  question.     In  other  words,  the  teacher  must  see 

that  the  questions  he    forms   on   a   given   text   not   only 

imply  the  answer,  but  practically  include  the  words  of  the 

1  "Franzosische  Sprechubungen,"  Storm,  Bielefeld,  2d  ed.,  1893. 


88  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

answer.  This  may  seem  mere  child's  play  to  the  outsider ; 
to  the  pupils,  however,  even  the  simple  repetition  of  the 
words  of  the  teacher  in  the  answer  form  offers  difficulties. 
Confusion  arises  from  the  mere  fact  of  having  a  question 
asked  them  in  a  strange  language.  The  new  words  and 
forms  become  confused  when  they  attempt  to  reply,  and 
added  to  this  are  the  difficulties  that  the  still  uncertain  pro- 
nunciation presents.  It  takes  time  to  get  the  class  in  the 
right  attitude  of  mind  to  answer  promptly  in  the,  as  yet, 
strange  language,  not  to  lose  their  heads  when  they  hear  a 
question  asked.  It  takes  time  to  bring  about  the  harmonious 
working  together  of  the  physical  and  the  psychological  factors 
necessary  in  speaking,  to  overcome  natural  shyness  at  trying 
to  say  something  in  a  language  which  they  are  only  begin- 
ning. It  is  a  very  good  plan  at  first  to  require  the  pupils  to 
repeat  the  question  verbatim  before  attempting  the  answer. 
Even  at  the  outset  considerable  variety  in  the  form  of 
questions  is  quite  possible,  in  fact  very  essential  for  sound 
progress.  As  the  majority  of  pupils  have  very  little  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence,  so  essential  as  a  foundation  for  asking  or 
answering  questions  on  a  given  text,  practice 
is  necessary.  Walter,  in  his  book  "  Der  franzosische  Klas- 
senunterricht,"  l  p.  18,  gives  illustrations  of  how  to  form 
questions  to  emphasize  in  the  answers  the  various  parts  of  the 
sentence,  such  as  subject,  object,  predicate,  adverbial  modi- 
fier, etc.  Take,  for  example,  the  French  sentence  he  gives  : 
Un  paysan  avail  remarque  que  beaucoup  de  personnes 
portent  des  lunettes  en  lisant. 

1 "  Der  franzosische  Klassenunterricht,"  Walter,  Marburg,  1895. 


WORK   IN   SPEAKING.  89 

So  zerlegt  man  zuniichst  den  Nebensatz  beaucoup  .  .  . 
en  lisant  in  die  folgenden  Fragen  : 

1.  Subjekt :   Qui  porte  des  lunettes  ? 

2.  Pradikat:   Quefont  beaucoup  de  personnes? 

3.  Objekt  :   Que  portent  beaucoup  de  personnes  ? 

4.  Adverb.  Bestimmung:  Quand portent-elles  des  lunettes? 
Auf  die  ersten  drei  Fragen  wiederholt  der  Schiller  den 

Satz :  Beaucoup  de  personnes  portent  des  lunettes  oder  dies 
portent  des  lunettes,  auf  die  vierte  fugt  er  diesera  Satze  noch 
en  lisant  hinzu.  Alsdann  verbindet  man  den  Hauptsatz  mit 
dem  Nebensatz  durch  die  Frage  : 

1.  Subjekt :  Qui  avait  remarque  que  beaucoup  de  personnes 
portent  des  lunettes  en  lisant? 

2.  Pradikat :   Qu'est-ce  que  le  paysan  avait  fait? 

3.  Objekt :   Qu'avait-il  remarque  ? 

Auf  jede  der  drei  Fragen  wird  der  Satz  wiederholt :  Un 
paysan  (il )  avait  remarque  que  beaucoup  de  personnes  portent 
des  lunettes  en  lisant. 

Some  such  plan  as  the  above  is  the  very  best  way  to  help 
the  pupils  themselves  to  prepare  the  reading  for  question  and 
answer.  It  can  also  readily  be  seen  that  such  a  preparation 
will  quickly  enable  the  pupils  to  ask  questions,  as  well  as 
answer  them,  in  class.  This  exercise  of  asking  each  other 
questions  ought  to  be  encouraged,  especially  on  selections 
that  have  been  carefully  worked  over  beforehand  by  the 
teacher,  and  are  well  mastered.  The  pupils  take  the  recita- 
tion into  their  own  hands  for  a  time,  the  teacher  simply 
guiding  and  correcting.  He  can  go  round  the  class  letting 
each  pupil  answer  and  ask  a  question  in  turn,  or  appoint 
one  pupil  to  ask  questions  for  a  time,  and  select  one  to 


90  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

answer  after  each  question  has  been  put.  This  guards 
against  simple  memorizing  of  the  text  with  nothing  more. 

In  the  early  stages  of  instruction  it  is  a  good  rule  to  which 
to  adhere,  that  the  pupils  should  answer  in  complete  sen- 
tences, and  not  be  content  with  simple  "  yes "  and  "  no." 

Later,  when  the  class  has  got  on  and  the  col- 
Complete  Sen- 
tences as  an       loquial  exercises  assume,  more  and  more,  the 

swer.  character  of  natural  conversations  between 

teacher  and  pupils,  it  is  not  so  essential.  But  such  a  state 
of  affairs  assumes  a  knowledge  of  German  which  is  beyond 
the  possibilities  of  the  ordinary  course  in  German  simply  fit- 
ting for  College.  If  the  teacher  is  content  to  accept  "yes" 
and  "  no  "  from  the  first  he  will  soon  find  that  he  does  most 
of  the  talking  instead  of  the  pupil.  Good  practice  for  the 
teacher  no  doubt,  but  failing  in  the  very  object  he  ought  to 
strive  to  attain. 

After  all,  one  of  the  great  secrets  of  doing  successful  work 

in  conversation  is  to  stimulate  the  pupils  to  do  the  greater 

part  of  it.     Let  the  teacher  talk  as  much  as  is  necessary  to 

make  what  he  wants  to  do  clear,  then  let  him 

Teache/Talk?  see  *^a*  tne  c^ass  ^oes  more  talking  than  he 
does.  It  has  been  my  experience  in  observing 
the  work  in  schools,  that  the  average  teacher  does  far  too 
much  of  the  talking.  He  seems  to  like  to  hear  the  sound  of 
his  own  voice  in  the  foreign  tongue,  and  the  poor  pupils 
have  to  sit  and  listen  when  they  ought  to  be  employing 
every  moment  of  the  valuable  time  training  their  own  vocal 
organs.  To  be  sure  in  every  well -organized  course,  it  is 
highly  advisable  that  the  class  should  hear,  as  well  as  speak 
a  great  deal ;  but  there  is  a  time  for  listening,  and  there  is 


WOEK   IN   SPEAKING.  91 

also  a  time  for  letting  the  pupils  talk  to  the  teacher  and  to 
each  other.  Teachers  seem  to  forget  that  no  one  ever 
learned  to  talk  simply  by  listening  to  someone  else.  It  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  care  and  forethought  under  present 
school  conditions,  to  be  at  all  successful  in  this  type  of  work. 
The  only  way  to  succeed  is  to  see  that  the  pupils  do  as  much 
of  the  talking  as  possible. 

Even  in  this  very  elementary  stage  there  are  numbers  of 
changes  which  can  be  made  for  variety's  sake,  and  which 
also  guard  against  parrot-like  work.  If  the  selection  is 
written  in  the  third  person,  for  example,  the 
th^worfc1  questions  can  be  so  put  as  to  give  practice  in 
the  other  persons,  singular  and  plural.  Change 
of  tense  can  often  be  introduced,  and  practice  in  the  use  of 
other  chapters  of  grammar.  Interesting  and  illustrative 
material  for  this  kind  of  work  will  be  found  in  Walter's 
book.  *  The  next  higher  grade  of  questions  would  still  be 
based  on  imitation,  but  would  not  follow  the  wording  of 
the  text  so  closely,  by  bringing  in  words  and  expressions 
with  which  the  pupils  are  already  familiar.  The  pupils 
should  in  fact  be  gradually  led  to  give  their  answers,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  their  own  words,  that  is  by  utilizing,  wherever 
feasible,  phrases  previously  made  their  own.  This  type  of 
question  and  answer  work  would,  to  all  intents  and  purposes* 
correspond  to  a  similar  exercise  on  a  text  in  the  mother- 
tongue.  The  admirable  method  of  paving  the  way  for  the 
natural  discussion  of  the  text,  is  one  seen  at  the  Muster- 
schule  at  Frankfurt-a-M.  Here  the  pupils  are  early  and  reg- 
ularly taught  to  substitute  other  modes  of  expression  for  the 

'"Englischnachdem  Frankfurter  Refonnplan,"  Walter,  Marburg,  1900. 


92  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

same  thought,  see  p.  105  of  Director  Walter's  book  cited 
above.  For  example  : 

The  advantage  of  the  English  lay  not  in  bulk,  but  in  con- 
struction. 

(a)  The  English  were  overwhelming  not  by  the  size  of  the 
ships,  but  their  power  lay  in  the  construction  of  the  ships. 

(6)  In  construction,  not  in  bulk  lay  the  advantage  of  the 
English  ships. 

(c)  The  English  ships  were  superior  to  the  Spanish,  not 
in  bulk,  but  in  construction. 

(c?)  The  advantage  of  the  English  fleet  (squadron)  consisted 
not  in  bulk,  but  in  construction. 

(e)  The  advantage  of  the  English  was  in  the  light  con- 
struction of  their  ships. 

(/)  The  English  had  not  large  ships,  but  they  were  better 
constructed. 

(g)  The  power  of  the  vessels  of  the  English  was  not  caused 
by  the  extent,  but  by  the  construction  of  the  ships. 

(K)  The  English  men-of-war  could  do  very  much  against  the 
enemy  because  they  were  well  constructed  and  not  too  large. 

(i)  The  English  vessels  were  not  large,  but  well  constructed. 

(k)  The  advantage  of  the  English  men-of-war  did  not  con- 
sist in  size,  but  in  construction. 

(I)  The  advantage  of  the  English  men-of-war  was  to  be 
found  in  their  construction. 

Lord  Howard  could  observe  that  many  of  the  large  ships  of 
the  enemy  were  busy  in  stopping  leaks. 

(a)  observe  =  see ;  many  =  a  great  number ;  were  busy 
=  were  engaged  in. 


WORK    IN   SPEAKING.  93 

(6)  busy  in  =  occupied  with  ;  enemy  ==  foe  ;  stopping  leaks 
=  repairing  the  damage  ;  observe  =  perceive. 

(c)  observe  =  remark  =  see  ;    many  of  =  a    great   part 
(deal)  of. 

(d)  observe  =  espy ;  busy  in  stopping  =  worked  to  correct. 
(e  )  busy  =  diligent. 

(/)  could  =  was  able. 

(<?)  Lord  Howard  saw  .  .  .  big  men-of-war. 

(h  )  large  ship  =  a  ship  of  great  bulk. 

(  i  )  many  =  most ;  stopping  =  closing  =  shutting. 

Instead  of  the  short  question  requiring  a  short  answer,  the 
questions  can  be  so  put  that  they  call  for  long  answers,  or  a 
resum6  of  an  anecdote,  or  a  previous  lesson,  or  the  story  of 
the  book  up  to  the  day's  lesson,  may  be  given.  But  such  a 
kind  of  work  ought  not  to  be  attempted,  at  least  as  a  regular 
exercise,  until  the  class  really  can  use  the  language  with  some 
degree  of  readiness.  The  fault  of  resume's  and  the  recitation 
of  short  stories  is  that  the  pupil  too  often  gives  them  ver- 
batim. The  recitation  goes  along  nicely  wherever  well 
memorized,  but  is  filled  with  inaccuracies  the  moment  the 
pupil's  memory  fails.  Re'sumSs  should  certainly  not  be 
attempted  with  any  class  before  the  material  on  which  they 
are  constructed  has  been  thoroughly  threshed  out,  and  the 
pupils  are  not  forced  to  follow  the  text  slavishly.  It  would 
be  better,  as  an  exercise,  to  assign  the  class  the  anecdote  or 
some  part  of  the  previous  lesson  to  be  learned  by  heart, 
than  allow  this  half  learning  by  heart  which  purports  to  be 
something  else.  After  reading  a  story,  etc.,  which  has  been 
arranged  in  the  form  of  question  and  answer,  an  excellent 
way  to  get  the  pupils  to  talk  is  for  the  teacher  to  ask  leading 


94  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

questions  about  the  characters  in  the  plot,  and  then  let  the 
different  pupils  contribute  all  they  can.  One  question  by  the 
teacher  may  lead  to  a  dozen  answers. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  time  devoted  to  German  in  the  aver- 
age high  school  will  allow  much  development  of  the  higher 
types  of  oral  work  I  have  suggested  above.  To  talk  over  a 
page  of  literature  freely,  as  one  would  talk  over 
a  page  of  English  literature,  to  give  in  one's  own 
words  the  gist  of  a  paragraph,  presupposes  a 
longer  apprenticeship  than  it  is  possible  to  give,  as  a  rule. 
Still  this  kind  of  work  is  the  goal  towards  which  oral 
exercises  should  lead.  Teachers  should  remember,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  only  by  persistently  practising  on  lower  forms 
of  work  that  success  in  the  higher  ones  is  at  all  made  possi- 
ble. Question  and  answer  work  closely  following  a  text 
must  always  receive  a  great  deal  of  attention.  There  is  no 
other  way  to  teach  conversation  in  school  than  by  this  close 
kind  of  imitation.  Teachers  should  not  be  too  ambitious 
and  attempt  work  for  which  the  class  is  not  yet  fitted.  To 
ask  pupils  to  give  orally,  or  write  down,  an  anecdote  they 
have  read,  before  they  are  well  grounded  in  the  question  and 
answer  stage  of  conversation  is  folly.  The  result  of  the 
exercise  will  depend  largely  upon  whether  they  have  learned 
the  piece  in  question  by  heart  or  not.  In  neither  case  are 
the  results  such  as  we  wish  for  in  this  kind  of  work. 

In  many  books  in  this  country,  and  in  still  more  in  Ger- 
many,  it  has  been  thought  necessary  by  the 
authors  to  print  appropriate  questions  on  the 
reading  texts,  for  the  use  of  teachers  and  pupils. 
Favorable  and  unfavorable  criticism  can  be  made  on  these 


WORK    IN   SPEAKING.  95 

printed  questions.  They  are  certainly  injurious  if  the 
teacher  simply  reads  them  off,  a  thing  often  done.  Such  use 
must  result  in  the  exercise  losing  every  bit  of  naturalness  it 
might  otherwise  have  had.  Interest,  which  we  claim  is  one  of 
the  great  recommendations  of  doing  work  in  speaking,  is  sure 
to  be  lacking,  in  time,  if  the  pupils  know  just  what  questions 
will  be  asked,  and  what  answers  they  will  be  expected  to  give. 
Moreover  it  is  surely  beneath  the  dignity  of  a  teacher  to 
depend  absolutely  on  such  printed  questions.  The  teacher 
knows,  or  ought  to  know,  far  better  than  the  author  just 

what  the  class  needs.     No  doubt  such  questions 
Should  the 

Teacher  Form  are  a  boon  to  the  overworked  or  lazy  teacher 
who  still  has  to  carry  on  work  in  speaking,  for 
it  requires  most  careful  preparation  on  his  part  to  work  out 
a  number  of  suitable  questions.  To  make  the  most  out  of 
every  sentence,  to  strengthen  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the 
language  by  giving  practice  in  the  more  useful  words  and 
expressions,  to  gradually  lead  the  pupil  to  replace  them  by 
other  words  and  expressions  to  express  the  same  thought, 
and  thus  pave  the  way  for  a  freer  use  of  the  language,  all 
this  is  not  the  work  of  a  few  minutes.  Even  the  ability  to 
form  correct  questions  requires  careful  study.  Help  will  be 
found  in  Reinstein's l  book,  and  also  in  Ohlert's.2  I  suggest 
that  the  best  way  to  prepare  the  questions  is  by  first  writing 
them  out,  and  practically  learning  them  by  heart.  Do  not  take 
them  to  class,  or  at  least  do  not  depend  upon  them.  It  gives 
the  pupils  a  chance  to  criticise,  and  moreover  if  the  prepared 

1  "Die  Frageim  Unterricht,"  Reinstein,  Leipzig,  1895. 
1 "  Allgemeine  Methodik  des  Sprachunterrichts,"  Ohlert ,  Hannover 
1893,  p.  192. 


96  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

questions  are  read  off  the  same  fault  is  committed  as  pointed 
out  above.  Being  thus  well  prepared  on  the  subject  matter, 
let  the  questions  rather  depend  upon  the  pupils'  answers. 
Once  the  passage  has  been  closely  gone  over  by  the  teacher, 
who  has  prepared  his  own  questions  on  it,  printed  questions 
upon  the  same  may  be  welcome  to  the  pupils  as  a  help  in 
reviewing  for  the  next  lesson. 

I  do  not  think  it  is  practicable  or  desirable  in  high  school 
work  to  throw  every  text  read  into  dialogue  form  carried  on 
in  the  foreign  language.     Many  selections  for  reading  other- 
wise suited  to  the  needs  of  the  class  are  not 
How  Far 

to  Carry  adapted,  except  perhaps  here  and  there,  to  any- 

Diaiogue  Form.  ^njng  but  forced  conversation.  Another  point 
against  grinding  over  every  reading  lesson  in  the  form  of  con- 
versation is  the  fact  that  the  selections  are  often  too  difficult. 
At  first  the  oral  ability  nearly  keeps  pace  with  the  pupil's  abil- 
ity to  read,  soon,  however,  at  least  with  high  school  pupils,  the 
gap  widens  tremendously  between  the  power  to  read  and  the 
power  to  speak.  This  state  of  affairs  is  partly  brought  about 
by  the  greater  emphasis  placed  upon  reading  from  the  very 
first,  for  after  all  our  chief  aim  is  to  teach  the  pupils  to  read 
much  and  well.  It  is  also  more  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  pupils  acquire  the  ability  to  read  much  faster  than  the 
corresponding  ability  to  speak.  The  result  is  that  the  read- 
ing texts  increase  rapidly,  or  comparatively  so,  in  difficulty, 
whereas  the  work  in  speaking  goes  on  slowly  and  with  little 
gradation.  Thus  we  soon  find  high  school  pupils  reading 
texts  with  ease  which  are  far  beyond  them  if  conversation 
were  made  of  equal  importance  with  reading  and  were  based 
upon  it.  It  would  be  manifestly  unfair  to  keep  pupils  of 


WORK   IN  SPEAKING.  97 

high  school  age  reading  simple  texts  mentally  beneath  them, 
in  order  to  have  material  for  conversation.  The  case  seems 
rather  different  to  me  with  younger  pupils  say  of  nine  or  ten, 
in  the  elementary  school.  It  is  no  place  here  to  discuss  the 
teaching  of  German  in  elementary  schools,  still  no  doubt  the 
oral  method  is  best  adapted  to  appeal  to  the  young  minds, 
and  conversation  would  doubtless  take  up  the  major  part  of 
the  time.  Accordingly  for  a  long  time  the  necessary  reading 
could  be  extremely  easy,  and  planned  to  work  well  in  dia- 
logue form  between  teacher  and  class. 

In  this  way  the  vocabulary  necessary  for  speaking  pur- 
poses would  practically  be  the  same  as  the  pupil's  reading 
vocabulary.  That  is,  each  word  read  would  immediately  pass 

into  the  productive  class  of  vocabulary  neces- 
BuLidin  aXy  sary  ^or  sPeaking-  This  manner  of  building  up 

a  stock  of  words  could  go  on  for  a  considerable 
time.  In  a  shorter  course,  with  more  mature  pupils,  how- 
ever, in  a  course  whose  primary  object  is  not  speaking  but 
reading,  there  must  be  at  least  two  main  groups  of  words  in 
the  pupils'  vocabulary. 

1.  A  comparatively  small   group   which   only  increases 
slowly  as  time  goes  on ;  the  words  which  have  reached  the 
productive  stage  and  can  be  used  accurately  and  fluently  in 
speaking. 

2.  A  far  larger  group  including  the  other,  which  grows 
rapidly ;  the  words  which  belong  to  the  reading  vocabulary 
of  the  pupil,  but  which  are,   for  the  most  part,  not  well 
enough  known  to  use  in  conversation. 

We  may  represent  the  two  vocabularies  from  the  point  of 
view  of  two  concentric  circles,  of  which  the  inner  circle  rep- 
8 


98  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

resents  the  productive  stock  of  words,  and  the  outer  and 
far  larger  represents  the  receptive  vocabulary,  the  words 
known  for  reading.  We  develop  the  words  within  the 
small  circle  as  much  as  is  consistent  with  our  aim,  still  it 
stands  to  reason  that  in  the  high  school  the  words  will 
never  be  large  in  number,  and  the  ability  to  use  them  very 
circumscribed. 

Largely  for  the  reasons  given  above,  I  have  suggested  in 
the  chapter  on  reading  that  it  is  advisable  to  have  two 
kinds  of  texts.  The  first  and  more  important  kind  com- 
prises reading  texts  chosen,  primarily,  for 
ofTexts  8  reading  alone,  though  adapted  here  and  there 
perhaps  for  colloquial  practice.  The  second 
kind  would  be  selected  principally  because  it  was  suitable 
both  from  the  point  of  view  of  difficulty,  and  its  adapta- 
bility for  practice  in  speaking.  The  first  kind  of  reading 
could  soon,  in  the  case  of  high  school  pupils,  be  chosen 
from  easy  German  literature.  The  second  would  be  best 
provided  for  first  by  constructed  texts,  or  possibly  by  easy 
anecdotes. 

Before  leaving  the  discussion  of  conversation  it  will  be 

necessary  to  say  something  about  the  use  of  German  as  the 

regular  language  of  the  class-room,  either  by  way  of  giving 

commands,  or  in  teaching  grammar.     Let  us 

X  JIG 

Language  of  take  the  first  —  commands  —  the  kind  of  con- 
tfce  Class-room.  versation  a  teacher  uses  to  conduct  a  class. 
If  we  leave  out  corrections  of  translation  and  the  study  of 
grammar,  there  is  no  occasion  for  the  teacher  to  say  very 
much  to  the  class  of  this  nature.  Still  it  is  important  to 
take  advantage  of  this  little.  Simple  as  the  oft-recurring 


WORK    IN    SPEAKING.  99 

expressions  are,  they  all  help  towards  producing  a  German 
atmosphere.  The  class  gradually  accumulates  in  this  way 
a  valuable  addition,  to  its  knowledge  of  the  language.  The 
habit  formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  course,  of  teaching  in 
a  direct  way  the  necessary  expressions  for  conducting  a 
class,  and  of  using  them  daily  and  not  only  periodically,  is 
to  be  commended.  Once  a  beginning  is  made  and  syste- 
matically adhered  to,  the  teacher  will  find  that  there  are  a 
number  of  things  in  time  that  can  be  said  to  the  class  just  as 
effectively  in  German  as  in  English.  I  advise  teachers  to 
make  out  a  short  list  of  questions  and  commands,  and 
gradually  use  them  as  occasion  offers.  One  can  easily  swell 
the  number  to  a  hundred  or  so  of  natural  expressions.  A 
good  way  to  prepare  the  list  is  to  write  down  what  is  con- 
stantly said  in  English  to.  a  class,  and  then  the  German 
equivalents. 

In  translation  it  seems  best  to  make  an  exception  to  the 

rule  of  using  German.  It  is  an  exercise  in 
^eersetEngU811  English,  and  the  teacher  had  better  consider 

it  as  such,  and  not  mix  the  two  languages. 
In  class  study  of  the  grammar  there  is  offered  a  great 
opportunity  to  use  German  as  the  language  of  the  class.     To 
meet  the  demand  grammars  written  wholly,  or  partly,  in  the 

foreign  tongue  have  appeared  in  Germany  and 
in  German  a^so  *n  ^8  country.  In  Germany  opinion  is 

still  divided.  Many  teachers  who  might  other- 
wise use  the  foreign  language  in  grammar  teaching  are  to  some 
extent  restrained  by  the  official  regulations,  notably  of  Prussia. 
There  is  certainly  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of,  and  also 
much  against,  this  practice,  especially  in  courses  organized 


100  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

as  those  in  Germany  and  where  speaking  the  language  is 
greatly  emphasized.  The  main  argument  in  favor  is,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  use  the  language  too  much  in  the  class-room. 
Advantage  should  be  taken  of  every  available  opportunity, 
and  just  this  study  of  grammar  offers  a  large  field  for  work 
in  hearing  and  using  the  language  studied.  Moreover,  such 
a  dialogue  carried  on  between  teacher  and  class,  is,  providing 
of  course  that  the  pupils  have  the  necessary  command  of 
the  material,  a  most  natural  kind  of  conversation.  The 
fact  that  the  pupils  are  daily  hearing  and  using  the  foreign 
language  seems  to  the  adherents  of  the  plan  to  outweigh 
any  objections  that  might  arise  on  the  score  of  the  gram- 
matical vocabulary  being  largely  made  up  of  technical  terms 
for  which  the  pupil  will  later  have  no  use.  They  say  that 
the  purely  technical  terminology,  for  the  most  part  derived 
from  the  Latin  and  the  same  for  all  languages,  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  teach.  In  addition  a  great  deal  of  other  mate- 
rial is  brought  into  use,  and  by  constant  repetition  strength- 
ens the  pupils'  command  and  understanding  of  the  spoken 
language. 

As  against  this,  there  are  several  objections  which  apply 
even  more  strongly  to  conditions  in  the  United  States  than 
in  Germany.  First,  a  few  preliminary  words  about  the 

ability  of  the  teacher  to  do  this  kind  of  work. 
Have  Teachers  J 

the  Necessary  In  Germany  I  have  heard  grammar  lessons 
Knowledge?  carried  on  in  English,  by  teachers  otherwise 
possessing  a  good  command  of  the  spoken  language,  who,  in 
their  grammar  teaching,  used  expressions  which  sounded  ex- 
tremely unnatural.  They  were  correct  in  a  measure  perhaps, 
and  yet  I  felt  sure  that  an  American  or  English  teacher  would 


WORK  IN  SPEAKING.  101 

not  explain  the  matter  in  the  same  way  or  in  the  same  terms. 
The  difficulties  of  the  teacher  in  securing  a  special  vocabulary 
and  turns  of  expression,  such  as  a  native  teacher  would  use, 
are  apparent.  He  will  not  learn  them  simply  by  the  study 
of  a  grammar  written  in  the  foreign  tongue.  It  seems 
almost  necessary  that  he  should  take  his  seat  as  a  school-boy 
once  more,  and  in  this  way  learn  the  grammatical  termi- 
nology. Admitting  that  the  teacher  can  handle  this  with 
sufficient  accuracy,  what  objections  can  one  raise  against 
teaching  grammar  in  German  ? 

There  are  two  essential  requirements  for  good  grammar 
teaching.  It  must  be  clear  and  it  must  be  thorough.  Ger- 
man grammar  at  the  best  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  English 

speaking  people.     However  we  teach  German 
Clearness.  .  . 

grammar,  whether  it  be  by  the  inductive  or  the 

deductive  method,  or  partly  by  both,  there  is  a  great  deal  for 
pupils  to  master.  Matters  are  constantly  coming  up  which 
must  be  explained  both  by  teacher  and  pupil.  I  have  yet 
to  learn  that  a  teacher  can  explain,  or  that  a  class  can  under- 
stand an  explanation,  any  too  well,  even  when  given  in  the 
mother-tongue.  The  usual  facts  of  the  case  are  that  im- 
portant principles  have  to  be  explained  carefully  many, 
many  times,  before  the  majority  of  the  class  grasp  their  sig- 
nificance. I  am  not  leaving  out  of  account  the  various 
exercises  by  way  of  illustration  either,  so  fundamental  as  an 
aid  to  understanding.  The  chances  against  securing  clearness 
when  using  the  foreign  language  must  certainly  be  increased. 
In  order  to  keep  within  the  range  of  the  pupils'  vocabulary 
the  teacher  is  obliged  to  use  a  circumlocution,  not  always 
very  clear,  nor  probably  as  accurately  expressed  as  the  more 


102  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

direct  statement  he  might  have  made  in  his  own  language. 
It  is  certainly  of  fundamental  importance  that  the  pupils 
themselves  should  also  be  taught  to  express  accurately  and 
definitely  the  more  important  facts  of  grammar,  but  it  is  too 
much  to  expect  them  to  give  accurate  definitions  or  explana- 
tions in  a  foreign  language,  which  they  can  still  only  handle 
with  difficulty.  To  be  sure  they  can  memorize  a  number  of 
explanations  from  the  grammar,  but  such  a  process  does  not 
imply  that  the  principles  underlying  them  are  understood. 
But  one  might  reply  that  it  is  sufficient  proof  of  understand- 
ing if  they  can  give  appropriate  illustrations  and  can  other- 
wise employ  the  rules  correctly.  We  wish  both  powers  de- 
veloped. We  wish  to  give  our  pupils  the  ability  to  employ 
grammatical  material  accurately  and  readily,  and  we  also 
wish  them  to  be  able  to  state  the  reasons  or  general  rules,  as 
far  as  they  are  valuable,  in  a  direct  logical  manner.  To  bring 
about  the  latter,  the  English  language  seems  best  adapted. 
We  save  a  great  deal  of  time,  we  are  more  likely  to  be  under- 
stood, and  what  we  say  is  more  likely  to  be  remembered. 

Grammar  teaching  in  the  foreign  language  the  pupils  are 
studying  runs  a  great  danger  of  being  superficial.  Free 
discussion  is  hampered  at  every  point  by  the  pupils'  inability 

to  understand  or  use  the  language  freely.     The 
Thoroughness.  .  .  ..    ..         . 

result  is  that  the  teacher  is  compelled  to  keep 

the  discussion  down  to  the  very  simplest  elements,  and  to 
merely  touch  the  surface  of  things.  Moreover  the  average 
teacher  is  too  likely  to  regard  the  whole  exercise  as  an  exer- 
cise in  speaking  rather  than  an  exercise  in  grammar.  With 
such  an  attitude  nothing  could  be  more  fatal  to  grammar 
teaching.  If  the  teacher  is  more  bent  on  securing  some  sort 


WORK   IN  SPEAKING.  103 

of  an  answer  to  his  question  than  he  is  on  teaching  grammar, 
if  he  deals  with  words  and  not  with  facts,  then  such  work  is 
a  mere  farce.  It  must  be  admitted  that  this  danger  lurks  in 
all  class  work  in  conversation  and  doubly  so  in  grammar 
teaching,  for  the  subject  is  intricate,  and  the  pupils'  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  as  yet  meagre.  After  all  for  secondary 
work  in  the  United  States  the  question  is  not  a  very  important 
one.  The  value  we  have  attached  to  speaking  is  not  great 
enough  to  warrant  us  in  spending  the  time  on  teaching 
grammar  in  any  other  language  than  the  mother-tongue.  */ 
Our  time  is  short  for  teaching  grammar  well  as  it  is,  and  we 
must  use  the  most  direct  method  and  the  one  that  will  pro- 
duce the  best  result  for  the  time  spent.  Assuredly  the 
teaching  of  German  grammar  in  English  meets  the  condi- 
tions best. 

If  the  teacher  is  anxious  to  eliminate  the  use  of  English  in 
the  upper  classes  and  thinks  the  matter  worth  while,  I  sug- 
gest using  a  small  German  grammar  in  these  classes.  The 
chief  difficulties  of  grammar  will  have  been 
overcome  ^7  this  time  and  the  class  will  be 
able  to  use  the  language  with  some  degree  of 
facility,  so  that  the  review  grammar  in  German  will  not 
cause  them  much  trouble.  The  grammar  study  on  the  con- 
trary may  receive  fresh  impetus  thereby.  Some  preparation 
too  may  be  made  long  beforehand  towards  making  the 
change,  by  teaching,  for  example,  the  common  technical 
terms.  There  is  surely  not  much  difficulty  in  learning  to 
say  "  Dativ  "  for  «  Dative,"  or  "  Kasus  "  for  «  Case,"  etc. 

My  present  feeling  towards  the  matter  is  that  the  field  for 
conversation  is  broad  enough  without  utilizing  the  language 


104  THE   TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

of  grammar.  The  dangers  I  have  enumerated  above  make 
me  very  sceptical  as  to  the  outcome  and  the  abiding  results 
of  grammar  study  carried  on  exclusively  in  German.  I 
should  certainly  advise  the  moderately  equipped  teacher  not 
to  attempt  it. 


CHAPTER  Y. 
GRAMMAR. 

THE  position  that  grammar  shall  occupy  in  modern  lan- 
guage instruction  has  long  been  a  debated  point.  One  gen- 
eration cultivates  grammar  as  a  very  precious  thing  in  itself. 
The  next  generation  says  "Away  with  grammar,  we  will 
have  none  of  it ! "  Still  a  third  party,  the  more  thoughtful, 
says  "  Grammar  shall  no  longer  be  enthroned  as  a  queen, 
but  in  the  future  shall  serve  as  a  handmaiden  !  We  should 
no  longer  study  the  grammar  for  itself  alone,  but  only  as  a 
means  of  better  understanding  the  written  and  spoken  lan- 
guage. It  is  a  means  to  an  end,  and  not  the  end  itself,  as 
held  a  generation  or  so  ago."  As  far  as  we  can  judge  at 
present  the  last  view  is  the  sanest.  Whatever  formal  value 
there  is  inherent  in  the  study  of  German  grammar  we  accept 
as  a  matter  of  course.  On  the  other  hand,  the  days  are  past 
for  regarding  the  study  of  modern  languages  as  purely 
mental  gymnastics,  and  the  centre  of  the  study  grammatical 
rules  and  paradigms.  But  even  if  we  dethrone  the  "queen" 
it  is  no  easy  matter  to  decide  what  duties  the  "  handmaiden  " 
shall  perform,  and  how  she  shall  perform  them  !  Not  to 
make  too  much  of  grammar,  and  yet  enough  ;  how  to  teach 
it  most  effectively,  most  quickly,  and  most  palatably,  are 
questions  that  are  ever  coming  up  for  solution. 

It  is  fundamentally  important  for  the  work  that  there 
should  be,  in  every  school  course,  a  systematic  study  of 

105 


106  THE  TEACHING  OP   GERMAN. 

grammar  suitable  to  the  age  and  requirements  of  the  pupils. 
Whether  we  make  reading  or  speaking  of  paramount  impor- 
tance, we  owe  it  to  our  pupils  that  what  they  learn  of  the 

language  should  be  well  ordered,  systematized 
study  of  knowledge.     Haphazard  instruction  dependent 

upon  the  caprice  of  the  teacher  is  unworthy  of 
our  subject.  We  are  willing  that  our  pupils  should  learn 
comparatively  little  grammar,  but  what  they  do  learn  shall 
be  learned  thoroughly.  As  our  time  is  short  for  this  kind 
of  work  in  the  course,  we  must  economize  by  "  pigeon-hol- 
ing "  the  pupil's  knowledge.  This  ordering  of  the  knowl- 
edge ought  to  begin  at  once.  We  do  not  want  the  kind  of 
knowledge  that  is  simply  based  upon  hearing  and  memory 
without  understanding,  or  even  the  kind  of  grammatical 
knowledge  that  pupils  acquire  when  all  the  chapters  of 
grammar  are  studied  at  once,  as  it  were.  The  pupil  with  such 
teaching  cannot  help  having  a  mere  jumble  of  unrelated  facts, 
which  in  time  will  fade  from  consciousness.  The  "  natural 
method  "  has  much  to  answer  for  as  regards  the  flippant  way 
the  pupil  is  taught  grammar,  or  rather  not  taught  grammar, 
and  teaching  according  to  the  "  reform  method  "  is  also  not 
without  its  dangers  in  the  hands  of  a  teacher  who  is  stronger 
in  theory  than  in  practice.  It  is  a  beautiful  theory  that  young 
pupils  should  unconsciously  learn  the  new  language  by  much 
hearing  and  speaking,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  child, 
in  the  first  years  of  his  life,  gradually  and  unconsciously  ac- 
quires a  vocabulary  and  knowledge  of  form.  But  the  cases 
are  by  no  means  parallel.  The  child  for  instance,  in  spite 
of  the  immense  advantages  he  has  in  power  of  imitation,  en- 
vironment, etc.,  wastes  a  great  deal  of  time  in  acquiring  even 


GKAMMAR.  107 

a  moderate  command  of  his  mother-tongue,  because  he  is  as 
yet  too  immature  to  benefit  by  any  systematization  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  language.  Pupils  of  high  school  age, 
however,  have  already  reached  the  period  in  their  mental 
development  when  they  can,  and  ought  to,  profit  by  order 
and  arrangement  in  the  work.  But  while  most  people  will 
agree  that  there  should  be  regular  and  thorough  study  of 
grammar  as  far  as  it  goes,  opinions  will  differ  widely  as  to 
the  best  arrangement  and  method.  Shall  we  teach  in  the  old- 
fashioned  way  according  to  the  long  established  categories, 
beginning  with  the  definite  article  and  ending  with  the  inter- 
jection ?  Or  shall  we  choose  small  bits  from  each  chapter  of 
grammar  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  hour,  leaving  the  com- 
plete system  to  be  built  up  at  some  later  date  ?  Or,  again,  shall 
we  teach  our  pupils  according  to  the  inductive  method  and 
let  them  gradually  fashion  their  own  grammar,  as  it  were,  from 
texts,  either  regular  or  constructed  ?  These  are  some  of  the 
questions  that  must  be  answered  in  this  chapter  on  Grammar. 
The  answer  to  the  first  two  questions  partly  depends  upon 
the  age  of  the  pupils,  and  partly  upon  the  type  of  language 
to  be  studied.  If  the  pupils  have  reached  the  age  when 
they  might  easily  profit  by  a  systematic  study 
Method  "  according  to  the  traditional  categories,  the  dis- 

cussion is  narrowed  down  to  the  influence  the 
kind  of  language  brings  to  bear  upon  the  arrangement  of 
grammar  study.  In  the  present  case  we  are  dealing  with 
high  school  pupils,  and  it  is  presupposed  that,  either  through 
the  study  of  English  or  both  English  and  Latin  they  are 
sufficiently  equipped  for  learning  grammar  in  the  above 
way,  if  deemed  advisable. 


108  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

A  language  as  rich  in  inflection  as  German  presents  diffi- 
culties whatever  arrangement  we  make  of  grammar  study, 
difficulties  which  would  be  scarcely  felt  in  the  study  of  Eng- 
Arra  ment  lish.  The  complexity  in  German  contrasted 
of  English  with  the  simplicity  of  English  noun  declension 
Grammar.  jg  Qnjy.  Qne  Qf  ^  many  obstacles  that  have  to 
be  overcome.  English  lends  itself  to  teaching  grammar 
according  to  arbitrary  installments  more  readily  than  Ger- 
man, for  compared  with  German  the  language  is  almost 
formless.  Leaving  syntax  and  the  verb  forms  aside,  the 
study  of  English  may  be  said  to  deal  very  largely  with 
acquiring  a  vocabulary,  for  the  changes  which  the  words 
undergo  in  the  sentence  are  so  slight  that  they  hardly  need 
to  be  taken  into  account,  at  least  compared  with  the  cor- 
responding changes  in  German.  Hence  it  makes  practically 
little  difference  not  only  in  what  order  the  different  cate- 
gories make  their  appearance  in  the  course,  but  also  whether 
the  various  parts  of  speech  are  introduced  simultaneously  or 
not.  In  fact  the  use  of  all  the  parts  of  speech  together  may 
be  a  distinct  advantage.  Obviously  the  reading  and  other 
exercises  are  not  so  likely  to  be  stilted  and  barren  of  interest 
where  the  writer,  or  teacher,  can  use  all  parts  of  speech,  at 
once  if  he  so  chooses.  He  is  not  forced  to  keep  within  a 
narrow  range  as  is  the  case  where  the  order  of  grammatical 
chapters  is  strictly  followed.  "With  a  few  principles  he  can 
set  a  wealth  of  material  going  in  teaching  English.  Words 
the  pupil  must  learn,  to  be  sure,  but  otherwise  he  is  not 
handicapped  at  every  turn  by  inflectional  endings  which  must 
be  known  before  the  words  can  be  used.  The  arrangement 
of  English  grammar  then,  depends  largely  upon  the  author's 


GRAMMAR.  109 

or  teacher's  personal  opinion,  both  as  regards  order  of  learn- 
ing the  various  forms,  and  syntactical  usages.  The  main 
thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  gradually  some  complete, 
even  though  elementary  knowledge,  of  the  system  as  a  whole 
shall  be  brought  home  to  the  pupil's  understanding. 

If  we  allow  the  same  loose  arrangement  in  the  study  of 
German  the  chances  of  success  are  less  certain.  The  large 
number  of  forms  tends  to  produce  great  confusion  unless 
Arran  ement  some  method  is  followed,  at  least  in  the  study 
of  German  of  those  parts  of  speech  in  which  the  forms  are 
Grammar.  subject  to  change.  For  example,  if  attributive 
adjectives  are  introduced  before  the  declension  of  nouns  and 
the  simple  uses  of  the  cases  are  known  by  the  pupils,  con- 
fusion is  sure  to  arise.  It  is  brought  about  largely  by  the 
troublesome  forms,  but  it  is  also  to  some  extent  increased  by 
the  introduction  of  words  employed  in  a  different  function. 
Some  well  thought  out  arrangement  is  necessary  for  the  study 
of  grammar  if  for  no  other  reason  than  the  confusion  that  will 
most  probably  arise  from  trying  to  do  too  many  things  at 
once.  We  cannot  immediately  teach  a  large  number  of  new 
forms  and  functions  which  are  exceedingly  difficult  for  the 
boy  of  any  nationality  to  grasp,  and  particularly  so  for  the 
American  or  English  boy  unused  to  gender  of  nouns,  cases 
of  nouns,  and  the  use  of  inflectional  endings,  etc.,  unless  he 
has  had  some  experience  with  Latin.  Another  reason  may 
be  added  for  definite  arrangement,  namely  the  fact  that 
inflectional  endings  are  after  all  closely  associated.  After 
the  pupil  has  a  knowledge  adequate  for  the  time  being  of 
nouns,  as  regards  forms  and  use  of  cases,  the  adjective 
declension  follows  naturally  from  the  knowledge  of  "  der," 


110  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

which  in  its  appropriate  form  the  pupil  is  always  expected  to 
associate  with  the  noun.  The  other  uses  to  which  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  declension  of  "  der  "  and  "  ein  "  may  be  put  are 
too  obvious  for  enumeration.  But  what  has  been  briefly  said 
above  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  systematic  study 
of  grammar  shall  be  given  strictly  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  order  of  the  chapters  in  a  scientific  grammar.  Let 
each  teacher,  if  he  is  able,  make  his  own  arrangement,  or 
follow  some  book  which  in  the  main  suits  him. 

The  chief  rules  to  follow  are  that  the  study  should  be  pro- 

gressive, passing  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  step  by  step. 

There  should  be  no  attempt  to  study  a  number  of  new  forms 

and  functions  together.     Such  a  course  will 


Be  Progressive   on^  Tesu^  *n  a  mere  jumble  or  undue  memory 
work  not  based  upon  reason,  or  both.     Rather 
teach  the  fundamental  facts  of  each  chapter  before  going  on 
to  the  next. 

There  is  no  doubt  a  strong  tendency  inherent  in  this 
method  of  going  through  each  chapter  by  itself,  to  neglect  the 
chapters  previously  studied.  While  hammering  at  the  nouns 
of  the  "  Mann  "  type,  the  pupils  may  easily 
Fretwork  forget  how  to  decline  nouns  like  "  Vater"  and 
"  Sohn."  Careful  teaching,  however,  can 
avoid  this  condition  of  affairs  to  a  large  extent,  but  it  is 
obvious  that  one  cannot  keep  the  whole  grammar  at  concert 
pitch,  under  any  system.  If  one  thing  is  picked  out  for 
practice,  it  necessitates  letting  something  else  fall  into  more 
or  less  disuse.  But  a  good  teacher  will  somehow  manage  to 
keep  the  fundamental  facts  of  grammar  and  syntax  ringing 
in  the  pupils'  ears  once  they  have  been  studied. 


GRAMMAR.  Ill 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  study  of  the  German  grammar, 

beginning  with  the  article  and   noun  and  so  on  through 

adjectives,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  is  on  the  whole  not  a  bad 

arrangement.     The  great  objection  to  this  order 

ofthlverb        is  that  ifc  Puts  off  the  real  stu(ty  of  the  verb 
until  late  in  the  course.     In  a  course  where 

little  attention  is  given  to  speaking,  where  in  fact  all  the 
teacher  wishes  is  that  his  pupils  shall  have  thoroughly  read 
through  the  grammar  and  have  done  a  few  exercises  on  the 
various  chapters,  this  objection  will  hardly  be  felt.  It  is 
only  when  one  wishes  to  teach  grammar  with  such  a  degree 
of  thoroughness  that  the  class  can  readily  make  use  of  the 
fundamental  facts  either  for  reading,  writing,  and  to  a  less 
degree  for  speaking,  that  the  distance  between  the  study  of 
the  noun  and  the  study  of  the  verb  is  borne  in  upon  one. 
There  are  so  many  things  to  do  before  the  class  has  an  ade- 
quate knowledge  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns,  and  all 
these  things  take  a  great  deal  of  time.  Yet  the  knowledge 
of  the  verb  is  so  extremely  important  that  at  first  thought  it 
might  almost  seem  advisable  to  begin  with  it  —  undoubtedly 
the  best  plan  in  the  study  of  French  —  and  take  up  the 
study  of  the  noun,  etc.,  in  connection  with  the  various  topics 
under  verbs.  I  think,  however,  the  other  procedure,  i.  e.t 
beginning  with  the  noun  and  teaching  as  much  of  the  verb 
as  is  necessary,  is  the  more  preferable  of  the  two  in  the  case 
of  German.  It  is  not  because  the  actual  forms  of  the  verb 
are  so  difficult  —  in  fact  they  come  more  naturally  to  the 
class  than  the  inflection  of  other  parts  of  speech  —  but  verbs 
carry  in  their  wake  a  number  of  other  exceedingly  complex 
matters,  prominent  among  which  is  their  influence  upon 


112  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

word  order.  This  plan  of  teaching  the  necessary  parts  of 
the  verb  with  the  noun  delays  the  complete  study  of  the 
verb,  but  on  the  other  hand  when  the  real  study  comes  the 
pupils  are  in  a  better  position  to  cope  with  it  than  if  the 
opposite  plan  were  followed.  Moreover  the  requisite  verb 
forms  are  more  easily  learned  than  the  nouns  and  adjectives. 
For  a  considerable  period  the  knowledge  of  the  simple 
tenses,  the  present  and  the  preterite,  and  the  imperative,  will 
amply  suffice.  They  will  take  as  much  time  as  we  can  spare 
from  the  main  topic  of  grammatical  study,  besides  the  limi- 
tations set  will  allow  the  pupils  time  to  get  well  grounded 
first  in  the  simpler  forms  of  the  normal  and  inverted  order. 
There  is  some  doubt  in  my  mind  as  to  when  the  compound 
tenses,  particularly  the  perfect  tense,  should  be  introduced. 
There  seems  no  harm  in  teaching  this  tense,  at  least  after 
the  pupils  know  the  tenses  given  above  of  a  good  stock  of 
common  verbs,  and  show  that  they  have  had  enough  practice 
to  have  formed  correct  habits  with  regard  to  word  order  in 
principal  clauses.  I  suggest  then  a  plan  by  no  means  new, 
namely  the  gradual  absorption  of  verb  forms  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  the  other  parts  of  speech  in  the  usual  order, 
beginning  with  the  noun  and  the  article,  but  leaving  the  more 
complete  study  of  the  verb  until  it  appears  in  regular  order. 
In  addition,  there  is  no  reason  why  uninflected  words, 
such  as  predicate  adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions,  etc., 
should  not  from  the  outset  be  incorporated  into  the  lessons. 

In  fact  adverbs  and  their  effect  on  word  order, 
Other  Parts  1,1  t*  ,1  ••• 

of  Speech          a  more  common  uses  of  the  prepositions, 

are  best  taught  from  the  beginning  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  inflected  parts  of  speech.     If  we 


GRAMMAR.  113 

except  the  verbs  and  the  other  uninflected  words,  the  other 
parts  of  speech  need  no  special  arrangement  as  regards 
introduction.  For  example,  the  relative  pronoun  appears 
at  a  time  when  the  class  knows  enough  of  German  word 
order  in  principal  clauses  to  readily  learn  the  changes  in 
word  order  in  subordinate  clauses.  Of  course,  the  work  is  at 
first  very  narrowly  limited  ;  we  are  cramped  on  every  hand, 
but  these  very  limitations  make  for  success.  Gradually  the 
whole  grammar  unfolds  itself,  with  the  ability  of  the  pupils 
to  make  good  use  of  forms  and  principles  as  they  appear. 

In  Germany  the  Reformers  are  strong  in  their  belief  in 
the  study  of  grammar  inductively.  The  reading  text  is 
made  the  basis  of  grammatical  study,  and  represents  the  liv- 
ing language  from  which  the  pupils  gradually 
evolve,  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  essential  grammatical  and  syntac- 
tical rules.  Some  few  teachers  even  go  so  far  as  to  prac- 
tically let  the  pupils  write  their  own  grammar  out  in  special 
exercise  books.  This  is,  for  a  time  at  least,  their  only 
grammar.  But  as  Sweet  says,  "  It  would  involve  great 
waste  of  time  and  effort  as  compared  with  the  ordinary 
grammatical  methods.  And  there  would  be  a  sense  of 
unreality  about  it ;  teachers  and  pupils  alike  would  feel  that 
they  were  only  playing  at  grammar  —  pretending  that  they 
had  to  make  their  own  grammar,  while  they  knew  perfectly 
well  that  the  work  had  been  done  for  them  long  ago,  and 
that  the  results  were  accessible  in  hundreds  of  grammars  of 
every  degree  of  elaborateness."  Moreover,  anyone  acquainted 
with  the  work  of  the  average  school-boy  knows  how  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  it  would  be  for  the  teacher,  and  how  much 
9 


114  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

time  it  would  take,  to  guard  against  inaccuracies  creeping 
in.  This  plan  is  apparently  not  at  all  general.  The  usual 
method  employed  by  teachers  who  still  believe  in  the  induc- 
tive method  of  grammar  study  is  to  use  the  printed  grammar 
as  a  guide  and  book  of  reference.  They  require  besides  that 
the  pupils  shall,  either  orally  or  in  writing  or  both,  collect 
material  on  the  various  essential  facts  of  grammar  and  syn- 
tax, more  particularly  by  searching  high  and  low  in  their 
reading,  etc.,  for  appropriate  examples.  For  work  of  this 
kind  again  see  Walter's  English  book,  p.  120. 

For  greater  clearness  as  to  how  the  inductive  method  of 
Ex  m  lea  of  grammar  study  is  used  in  Germany  for  the 
the  inductive  study  of  English,  two  examples  from  Mangold l 
Method.  wjjj  ke  foun(j  SUggestive. 

After  saying  that  the  inductive  study  of  the  grammar  is 
so  often  misunderstood,  and  that  he  wishes  to  make  the 
matter  clear,  he  goes  on  : 

"  Ich  sehe  z.  B.  bei  Hausknecht,  dass  nach  der  dritten 
Lektion  bereits  die  Formen  von  to  do  zusammengestellt 
werden  konnen ;  denn  es  sind  folgende  Satze  dagewesen  :  — 
Doesn't  Parker  ring  the  bell  loud  enough  ?  —  Don't  you  see 
it  ?  —  /  wish  I'd  done  it.  —  I  haven't  finished  doing  my  Ger- 
man exercise  yet.  —  This'll  do.  —  Why  didn't  you  look  it  out  in 
the  dictionary  ?  —  What  does  Blei  mean  f  Ich  lasse  alle  diese 
Satze  von  den  Schulern  vorbringen,  indem  ich  ihnen  aufgebe, 
alle  Beispiele  von  thun  =  to  do  zu  sammeln.  Ich  schreibe 
die  verschiedenen  Formen  wahrenddessen  an  verschiedene 
Stellen  der  Tafel,  etwa  so  : 

1  "  Methodische  Fragen  des  englischen  Unterrichts,"  Mangold,  Berlin, 
1896,  p.  21. 


GRAMMAR.  115 

do         did         done         doing 

does 

do 

Die  Schiller  finden  leieht  die  Unterschiede  der  Tempora 
heraus,  indem  sie  die  einzelnen  Formen  ordnend  bestimmen, 
und  hiermit  ist  die  voile  Konjugation  dieses  Verbums  gewon- 
nen ;  sie  braucht  nur  durch  Uebuugen  befestigt  zu  werden. 
Ebenso  sind  alle  Formen  zu  inducieren. 

Als  syntaktisches  Beisptel  der  Induktion  wahle  ich  das 
Partizipium  des  Prasens  gleichzeitig  mit  dem  Gerundium 
oder  Verbalsubstantiv.  Zeit  der  Zusammenfassung  etwa : 
Ende  des  ersten  Halbjahres,  nachdem  der  erste  Teil  des 
"  English  Student "  durchgenoramen  ist.  Es  liegen  darin 
etwa  44  Beispiele  auf  die  Progressive  Form :  I  am  coming 
u.s.f.,  9  auf  die  adjektivische  Verwendung  :  Bob  waking  up,  2 
auf  den  Anschluss  an  Verba  der  Wahrnehmung  :  Don't  you 
hear  the  man  calling  out?  5  auf  die  Formel  /  am  going  to. 
Die  iibrigen  14  Beispiele  gehoren  zum  Gerundium.  Es  kam 
2mal  vor  als  Subjekt,  z.  B.  Walking  has  made  me  hungry, 
6mal  als  Objekt,  z.  B.  We  can  do  our  packing,  einschliess- 
lich  von  Fallen  wie  The  boys  stop  talking,  6mal  in  Verbin- 
dung  mit  Prapositionen,  z.  B.  I  am  very  fond  of  learning. 

Hiermit  sind  die  Grundziige  fur  die  syntaktischen  Regeln 
iiber  Partizip  und  Gerundium  gegeben.  Nachdem  die 
Schiller  die  Beispiele  mit  Hiilfe  des  Lehrers  gesammelt  und 
geordnet  und  die  Prinzipien  des  Gebrauchs  erschlossen 
haben,  wird  die  Grammatik  aufgeschlagen,  die  Richtigkeit 
der  gefundenen  Regeln  bestatigt  und  zusammenfassend  ein- 
gepragt.  Es  zeigt  sich,  dass  manche  wichtigen  Falle  noch 
fehlen,  die  fiir  die  Zeit  aufgespart  werden,  welche  zum 


116  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

Abschluss  des  Partizip-Pensums  bestimmt  1st.  Die  Gram- 
matik  muss  ja  immer  wieder  und  wieder  vorgenommen 
werden,  da  sich  ihr  System  in  konzentrischen  Kreisen  auf- 
bauen  soil." 

The  inductive  study  of  grammar  as  seen  in  Germany,  is 
one  of  the  results  of  the  reaction  against  undue  emphasis  of 
rules  and  paradigms  of  generations  ago.  The  old  plan  of 

beginning  with  the  rule  and  following  with  a 
^Euie^ater*  ^ew  examples  nas  given  place  to  the  opposite 

procedure :  examples  first,  rule  afterwards. 
Instead  of  constructing  the  language  laboriously  in  accord- 
ance with  a  number  of  rules  which  the  pupil  must  take 
entirely  on  faith,  the  inductive  method  prescribes  that  one 
should  start  with  the  living  language  and  fashion  one's  own 
rules,  or  at  least  prove  for  oneself  the  printed  rules  of  the 
grammar.  It  is  an  attempt  to  apply  to  the  study  of  gram- 
mar the  same  scientific  method  which  has  long  since  been 
applied  to  the  study  of  sciences.  In  fact,  the  inductive 
method  as  applied  to  language  study  is  nothing  new.  Ratke 
among  others  who  have  followed  him,  advocated  it.  Why 
is  it  that  the  method  par  excellence  for  all  scientific  work 
has  had  so  many  ups  and  downs  when  applied  to  the  learning 
of  foreign  languages  ? 

If  we  speak  from  a  purely  theoretical  standpoint,  there 
are  some  fundamental  advantages  which  may  be  claimed  for 
this  method,  as  against  the  more  usual  synthetic  method  so 

much  used  in  the  past.  In  the  first  place  it 
Advantage  of 

the  inductive     puts  the  pupils  in  the  right  attitude  towards 
ffetnod.  grammar  and  its  relation  to  the  language.     In- 

stead of  regarding  the  language  as  something  constructed  to 


GRAMMAR.  117 

comply  with  a  number  of  abstract  rules,  he  learns  the  correct 
point  of  view,  namely  that  rules  are  merely  attempts  on  the 
part  of  scholars  to  deduce,  from  the  language,  some  sort  of 
system  for  the  sake  of  guidance. 

It  is  also  psychologically  and  didactically  correct  that  the 
understanding  of  abstract  rules  of  grammar  should  grow  out 
of  the  examination  of  an  abundance  of  individual  cases,  i.  e., 

the  abstract  should  grow  out  of  the  concrete. 
Abstract  Drawn  ° 

from  the  If  the   pupil  with   the   help   of   the   teacher 

Concrete.  abstracts,  for  himself,  the  principles  and  rules 

from  the  study  of  numerous  examples,  the  kind  of  mental 
activity  he  has  exercised  to  arrive  at  results  will  make  his 
knowledge  sounder  and  more  easily  retained. 

Moreover,  the  adherents  of  the  inductive  method  claim  it  is 
more  interesting  to  the  pupils.  "  Es  weckt  und  erboht  das  In- 

teresse;  durch  das  Selbstfinden,  das  Selbstent- 
Interest. 

decken  wachst  nicht  nur  die  Kraft,  es  steigert 

sich  auch  Eifer,  Freudigkeit,  und  Aufmerksamkeit  des  Ler- 
nenden."  l 

The  usual  criticism  made  against  the  inductive  study  of 
grammar  is  that  it  is  unsystematic.  If  we  take  the  ordinary 
view  of  the  matter  it  certainly  does  lack  a  visible  system. 
The  pupils  are  at  first  taught  only  fragments 
from  different  parts  of  the  grammar,  just  what 
the  teacher  thinks  necessary  for  the  present 
purpose.  In  the  teacher's  mind,  however,  there  is  present 
all  the  time  some  preconceived  arrangement,  and  the  results 
of  the  study  will  no  doubt  enable  the  pupils  in  time  to  form 
a  well-knit  system.  In  the  meanwhile  the  pupil  follows  his 

1  "  Encyclopedic  des  franz.  Unterrichts,"  Wendt,  Hannover,  1895,  p. 
131. 


118  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

guide  implicitly,  just  as  under  the  old  method  he  had  to  accept 
the  rules  of  grammar  on  faith.  What  if  the  teacher  is  not  a 
suitable  guide  ?  Training  in  the  use  of  the  scientific  method 
will  do  the  pupil  little  good  if  the  teacher  has,  after  all,  made 
but  a  muddle  of  the  whole  matter  of  grammatical  study ;  if, 
where  we  awaited  a  thorough  preparation  for  forming  a  sys- 
tem, we  find  nothing  but  disconnected  fragments. 

No  method  of  grammar  study  is  so  dependent  upon  the 
teacher  for  its  success  or  failure  as  the  inductive.  The  syn- 
thetic study  calls  for  a  book  arranged  more  or  less  strictly 
according  to  the  established  categories  of  gram- 
Depends  Upon  mar,  containing  necessary  illustrative  material, 
the  Teacher.  an(j  tke  main  task  of  the  teacher  is  to  teach 
according  to  the  book.  In  the  inductive  study  of  the  gram- 
mar based  upon  the  living  language  the  teacher  controls  the 
grammatical  study  to  a  great  extent.  It  depends  upon  him. 
whether  at  the  end  the  pupils  have  been  taught  the  necessary 
chapters  of  grammar.  Hence,  it  is  not  alone  fundamental 
that  the  teacher  should  know  how  to  speak  and  write  the 
language  correctly,  but  he  must  also  have  a  very  clear  idea 
of  just  what  is  essential,  how  to  separate  the  important  from 
the  unimportant  in  the  mass  of  material.  Moreover,  this 
must  in  the  end  result  in  a  methodical,  well  constructed,  and 
well  balanced  plan  as  to  how  the  pupils  are  to  be  gradually 
led  to  a  well  rounded  knowledge  of  the  main  facts  of  gram- 
matical usage,  which  can  eventually  be  systematized.  What 
has  been  done  and  what  is  to  be  done,  as  well  as  how  it  is  to 
be  done,  must  stand  out  clearly  in  the  teacher's  mind.  Of 
course  the  teacher  will  find  lesson  books  written  for  just  this 
kind  of  work,  still  they  must  always  be  largely  suggestive. 


GRAMMAR.  119 

The  great  bulk  of  the  thinking  and  planning  must  be  done 
by  the  teacher. 

Then  there  is  the  problem  to  be  solved  of  how  to  obtain 
material  suitable  for  the  deduction  of  the  main  rules  of  gram- 
mar and  syntax.  Even  in  the  study  of  English  and  French 

it  has  been  found  expedient  to  either  choose  or 
Material  for 

the  Deduction  construct  texts  that  are  rich  in  particular  forms, 
of  Rules.  or  aii;ec[  groups  of  forms,  and  from  which  rules 

can  be  readily  deduced.  Bierbaum,  for  example,  says  : 

"  In  Bezug  auf  die  fur  ein  Lehrbuch  geeigneten  Lese- 
stiicke,  an  denen  nicht  allein  die  Sprachfertigkeit,  sondern 
auch  die  Grammatik  auf  induktive  Weise  gewonnen  werden 
soil,  neigt  sich  jetzt  die  Mehrzahl  der  Anhanger  der  neuen 
Lehrweise  immer  mehr  der  Ansicht  zu,  dass  dieselben  auch 
derartig  beschaffen  seien,  ganz  besonders  diesem  letzteren 
Zwecke  zu  dienen,  d.  h.  die  zur  grammatischen  Anschauung 
notigen  Beispiele  in  geniigender  Anzahl  zu  enthalten.  Das 
kann  selbstverstandlich  bei  keinem  einzigen  Lesestiicke  der 
Fall  sein,  welches,  olme  besonders  fur  diesen  Zweck  bear- 
beitet  zu  sein,  aus  irgend  einem  Buche  abgedruckt  wird." l 

While  it  is  possible  to  apply  the  inductive  method  to  the 
study  of  all  languages,  there  is  no  doubt  that  highly  inflec- 
tional languages,  such  as  Latin  and  German,  do  not  lend 
Application  of  tnemselves  8O  easily  to  it  as  the  English  and 
the  inductive  French  type.  These  difficulties  do  not  so 
much  arise  from  the  mere  deducing  of  the 
rules  from  the  text,  as  from  the  confusion  that  must  neces- 
sarily result  from  starting  with  a  text  that  contains  a  large 

^  Lehrbuch  der  englischen  Sprache,"  Bierbaum,  I.  Teil.,  p.  iv, 
Leipzig,  1892. 


120  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

number  of  new  forms  at  the  very  outset.  For,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  advocates  of  the  inductive  method  also  hold 
strongly  to  the  belief  that  the  work  should  be  based  upon 
some  natural  text,  however  simple,  and  not  upon  discon- 
nected sentences  made  to  cover  a  particular  point.  Excel- 
lent as  Hausknecht's  "  The  English  Student "  l  may  be  for 
the  study  of  English,  the  selection,  if  given  in  German, 
would  turn  out  most  inappropriate  for  beginning  reading. 
Let  us  take,  for  example,  Sketch  I.,  First  Dialogue, 
Getting  up. 

In  a  bedroom  of  Charterhouse  School  at  Godalming, 
Surrey. 

Tim  (pulling  the  blanket  and  counterpane  off  Bob's  bed). 
Hulloa,  Bob,  get  up.  Doesn't  Parker  ring  the  bell  loud 
enough  ? 

Bob  (waking  up  and  rubbing  his  eyes).  What,  six 
o'clock  already  ?  I  still  feel  very  sleepy. 

Tim.  That's  how  it  is  every  morning.  Make  haste  and 
get  dressed.  It's  twenty  minutes  past.  Have  you  forgotten 
what  the  Doctor  said  last  week? 

Sob.  No,  so  I  won't  be  late  again.  (Throwing  off  the 
sheet,  he  gets  out  of  bed,  puts  on  his  trousers  and  socks  and 
begins  to  wash).  I  say,  where's  my  sponge? 

Tim.  Don't  you  see  it  ?  There  it  is.  It  has  dropped 
down  on  the  floor. 

Bob.     All  right,  I'll  pick  it  up. 

lim  (after  a  few  minutes).     Are  you  ready  now  ? 

Bob.  Yes,  I'm  coming.  I'll  just  brush  my  hair  and  put 
my  brush  and  comb  away. 

1  "The  English  Student,"  Hausknecht,  Berlin. 


GBAMMAR.  121 

Tim.  That's  good.     We  are  just  in  time. 

If  we  hastily  put  the  selection  into  German  the  matter 
takes  on  a  different  aspect.  The  nouns  and  adjectives  put 
on  endings,  the  word  order  gets  complicated,  the  verb  forms 
are  not  so  easy.  Look  at  the  variety  of  tenses  and  clauses. 
There  are  simple  verbs,  and  compound  verbs  with  separable 
prefixes,  prepositions,  etc.  Almost  every  chapter  of  gram- 
mar is  represented  in  this  one  little  piece.  The  only  thing 
we  can  do  is  to  hammer  the  sketch  into  the  pupil's  memory 
just  as  it  is.  Any  change,  by  the  way  of  exercise  in  conver- 
sation, means  more  memory  work  and  added  confusion,  for, 
unfortunately,  the  endings  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs, 
change  all  too  readily. 

It  is  obvious  that  all  points  of  grammar  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed together  in  school  work,  hence  each  lesson  must  be 
left  unfinished  although  it  contains  a  large  number  of  loose 

Grammar  must  threads  to  be  Joined  together  at  some  future 
be  Learned  time.  This  entails  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
a  large  amount  of  pure  memory  work.  If  con- 
versation or  written  exercises  are  attempted,  a  still  larger 
number  of  inflectional  endings  and  other  grammatical  and 
syntactical  usages  must  be  taken  and  learned  on  faith.  The 
confusion,  moreover,  is  bound  to  be  increased  if  any  changes, 
however  slight,  are  made  in  the  working  over  of  the  text.  A 
change  of  case  in  the  noun  carries  with  it  a  change  in  the 
article  or  adjective  modifiers.  A  change  in  tense  may  also 
cause  a  change  in  word  order.  No,  we  cannot  teach  high 
school  pupils  German  in  that  way.  We  must,  as  I  have  said 
before,  make  a  modest  beginning,  and  especially  where  there 
are  a  number  of  forms  to  master  bring  our  main  efforts  to 


122  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

bear  upon  teaching  pupils  in  an  orderly  way  the  cardinal 
points  of  grammar  and  syntax. 

The  old-fashioned  way  of  drilling  on  the  grammar  was  in- 
adequate. Pupils  were  set  to  learn  paradigms  off  by  heart, 
then  followed  a  number  of  disconnected  sentences  to  be 

translated  into  English,  and  an  equal  number 
Method1"  *°  ^e  trans^ated  back  into  German.  Under 

the  chapter  of  personal  pronouns,  for  example, 
the  teacher  often  thought  his  work  finished  if  the  pupils 
could  give  fluently  the  various  forms,  and  then,  with  constant 
reference  to  the  paradigms,  could  use  the  forms  in  detached 
sentences,  each  form  occurring  perhaps  once.  But  though 
pupils  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  use  pronouns  after  hav- 
ing written  the  various  forms  a  few  times,  this  skimming 
over  the  ground  was  deemed  sufficient,  and  the  class  ad- 
vanced to  the  next  chapter  where  a  similar  process  went  on. 
If  by  chance  personal  pronouns  were  required  in  the  new 
set  of  sentences,  they  were  usually  forgotten  by  that  time,  and 
a  search  had  necessarily  to  be  made  in  the  paradigms  to 
find  the  needed  form  or  forms. 

Mere  paradigm  learning  and  writing  is  absolutely  insuffi- 
cient, and  we  must  resort  to  some  other  means.  I  am  not 
against  paradigm  learning,  especially  in  languages  like  Latin 

and  German,  for,  if  well  learned,  they  act  as  a 

Paradigm          store-house  of  forms  which  the  pupil,  if  in  doubt 
Learning. 

about  a  form,  can  draw  upon.  It  is  a  living 
book  of  forms  which  is  always  with  him.  But  what  good  is 
a  mass  of  forms  learned  off  by  heart,  if  they  are  only  so  many 
solid  blocks,  if  the  pupil  has  not  been  taught,  by  numerous 
and  varied  exercises,  to  split  these  blocks  into  little  pieces, 


GRAMMAR.  123 

and  use  each  one  not  once  but  many  times.  It  is  little  good 
to  a  pupil  if  he  can  rattle  off  the  declension  of  "  der  Knabe  " 
and  still  stumbles  and  errs  when  called  upon  to  use  any  one 
particular  form.  There  are  many  teachers  who  pay  far  too 
much  attention  and  take  far  too  much  time  teaching  their 
classes  to  give  and  write  quickly  the  declensions  and  princi- 
pal parts  of  verbs,  as  if  the  pupil's  knowledge  depended 
entirely  upon  the  way  in  which  he  could  run  through  them. 
Learning  declensions  is  the  least  a  pupil  ought  to  be  ex- 
pected to  do  towards  gaining  control  of  the  new  language. 

The  same  type  of  teacher  who  drills  on  paradigms  and 
neglects  the  language,  usually  makes  the  mistake  also  of 
talking  too  much  about  grammar.  Now  one  might  learn  all 

the  rules  of  grammar  and  syntax  off  by  heart. 
Language  J 

Neglected  or  be  able  at  least  to  answer  a  host  of  gram- 
for  Grammar.  matical  questions  correctly,  and  yet  know 
next  to  nothing  about  the  living  language  of  books  and  con- 
versation. Some  teachers  have  a  fondness  for  teaching 
grammar  by  such  questions  as  :  How  many  declensions  are 
there  in  German  ?  What  nouns  belong  to  the  first  strong 
declension  ?  Are  there  any  feminine  nouns  in  the  declension  ? 
What  can  you  say  of  nouns  ending  in  "  chen  "  and  "  lein  "  ? 
When  do  you  use  the  inverted  order?  These  questions 
are  all  right  in  their  way,  but,  I  should  much  prefer  the 
pupils  to  decline  nouns  of  the  first  strong  declension  cor- 
rectly, or  better  still  use  them  correctly,  than  to  be  able  to 
give  the  rule.  Pupils  brought  up  simply  to  answer  gram- 
matical questions  will  tell  you  glibly  that  diminutives  in 
"  chen  "  and  "  lein  "  are  always  neuter  in  gender,  and  the 
next  moment  in  their  work  will  write  or  say  "  die  Madchen  " 


124  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

or  "  der  Baumchen,"  or  will  violate  the  rule  for  inverted 
word  order  although  they  can  recite  the  rule. 

We  should  not  accomplish  our  end  any  better  if  grammars 
and  lesson-books  doubled  or  trebled  the  exercises,  more 
especially  the  translations  from  English  into  German.  They 
Shall  We  would  only  make  the  book  bulky,  and  even 

Double  the         then  would   be  insufficient  for  our  purpose. 

Instead  of  one  form  appearing  twice,  the  same 
would  appear  perhaps  six  times,  but  as  they  would  be  scat- 
tered among  a  large  number  of  sentences  the  effect  of  the 
repetition  would  be  lost,  to  say  nothing  of  the  amount  of 
valuable  time  wasted  by  the  increased  number  of  sentences 
to  be  written  —  time  which  could  be  far  better  spent  in 
other  ways. 

What  we  want  is  to  take  one  form  or  combination  of  forms 
which  naturally  go  together,  and  then  arrange  a  kind  of 
exercise  that  will  act  like  a  steam-hammer.  We  must 

hammer,  hammer,  hammer  on  a  grammatical 
_  e^.m  a  r  form  or  point  until  something  like  a  habit,  at 

least  for  the  time  being,  is  formed  in  the  pupils' 
minds.  Later  on  occasional  hammering  will  serve  to  keep 
up  what  the  pupils  have  once  learned.  The  method  will  be 
largely  oral.  Instead  of  asking  questions  about  grammar, 
or  being  content  with  listening  to  the  recitation  of  paradigms, 
we  will  talk  grammar.  That  is  to  say,  we  will  arrange  a 
kind  of  conversation,  rather  oral  exercise  in  the  form  of 
question  and  answer,  of  such  a  nature  that  the  manner  of 
the  question  will  force  the  pupil  to  employ  the  grammatical 
point  which  the  teacher  wishes  to  emphasize.  For  example, 
suppose  one  wishes  to  teach  the  weak  declension  of  the 


GRAMMAR.  125 

adjective,  more  particularly  one  case  —  the  accusative  sing- 
ular. For  nouns  let  us  take  objects  lying  on  the  teacher's 
desk,  things  with  which  the  pupils  are  very  familiar,  so  that 
they  can  concentrate  their  attention  on  the  one  point  to  be 
learned.  Our  material  for  the  present  will  be  pencils  of 
various  colors,  books,  and  chalk.  It  should  be  made  clear 
to  the  class  what  the  teacher  wishes  done.  It  is  understood 
also  that  they  are  always  to  answer  in  complete  sentences. 
If  the  class  has  learned  the  forms  of  the  weak  declension  the 
teacher  can  simply  ask  the  first  question,  if  not,  of  course  he 
will  have  to  answer  the  first  question  himself  in  order  to 
start  the  class. 

Welchen  Bleistift  habe  ich  in  der  Hand  ? 

Sie  haben  den  roten  Bleistift  in  der  Hand. 

Welchen  Bleistift  habe  ich  jetzt  in  der  Hand  ? 

Sie  haben  den  blauen  Bleistift  in  der  Hand. 

Was  nehme  ich  jetzt  in  die  Hand  ? 

Sie  nehmen  die  weisse  Kreide  in  die  Hand. 

Fraulein  M.,  nehmen  Sie  die  rote  Kreide.  Welche  Kreide 
nimmt  Frl.  M  ? 

Sie  nimmt  die  rote  Kreide. 

Worauf  lege  ich  jetzt  das  braune  Buch  ? 

Sie  legen  das  braune  Buch  auf  den  Tisch.  (auf  den 
grossen  Tisch,  etc.). 

The  questions  and  answers  are  given  quickly  and  other 
objects  and  qualities  are  introduced  into  the  exercise.  If 
other  cases  have  already  been  studied  they  too  will  serve  to 
make  the  work  less  monotonous.  It  can  easily  be  seen  too, 
that  with  each  step  made  in  the  grammar  the  exercises  will 
become  less  and  less  restrained.  Natural  conversation  is  it 


126  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

not,  and  such  it  does  not  make  any  claim  to  be,  especially  at 
first  when  the  work  may  seem  stupid  to  the  observer  who 
knows  it  all. 

The  only  claim  it  makes  is  that  it  gives  the  pupils  abun- 
dant practice  on  one  little  grammatical  point,  practice  that 
cannot  be  given  so  well  in  any  other  way.     Instead  of  skip- 
ping about  through  the  whole  adjective  declen- 
Abundant  •  ,  i  -11         •  /> 

Practice.  sion>  as     e  PuPlA  does  «  set  to  write  sentences, 

or  if  he  learns  to  answer  questions  based  upon 
the  reading  text,  he  first  goes  through  a  preliminary  drill  on 
the  individual  forms.  By  means  of  this  he  acquires  the 
habit  of  using  the  correct  form.  If  the  class  were  to  write 
out  an  exercise  with  the  same  amount  of  practice  on  each  of 
the  forms  it  would  take  hours,  and  then  would  not  be  as 
effective  as  the  oral  work  which  is  accomplished  by  spending 
a  few  minutes  daily.  The  old  way  of  learning  paradigms 
and  writing  a  few  sentences  and  then  passing  on  to  the  next 
division  of  the  grammar,  is  weak  on  the  side  of  practice. 
There  is  too  much  grammar  and  too  little  practice,  and  that 
little  is  too  scattered. 

The  method  of  teaching  the  language  by  conversation, 
either  based  upon  pictures  or  the  connected  reading,  gives 
abundant  practice  in  the  use  of  the  language,  but  too  little 
attention  to  the  building  up  of  the  grammar 
Grammatik        8O  fundamentally  important  in  learning  a  lan- 
guage like  German.      This  method  of  living 
grammar,   "  lebendige  Grammatik "  as  Hausser l  calfe  it, 
which  we  advocate,  contains  both  systematic  grammar  and 
practice.     It  is  preparatory  work  to  the  freer  conversation 

1  "Lebendige  Grammatik,"  Hiiusser,  Potsdam,  1902. 


GRAMMAR.  127 

based  upon  the  reading  text.  The  child  must  learn  to  crawl 
before  he  can  walk.  The  pupil  must  be  sure  of  his  inflec- 
tional endings,  by  detailed  study  and  abundant  practice, 
before  he  can  be  expected  to  use  all  forms  as  they  appear 
haphazard  in  the  story  or  in  ordinary  conversation. 

The  type  of  grammar  teaching  that  I  mean  is  not  new  in 

this  country,  and  is  well  illustrated  in  Spanhoofd's  "  Lehr- 

buch  der  deutschen  Sprache."    An  examination  of  this  book 

will  make  clear  that  every  essential  point  of 

Spannoofd'u  German  grammar  can  be  worked  out  on  the 
Lenrtouch. 

plan  sketched  in  the  "  Lehrbuch." 

This  method  of  teaching  living  grammar,  however,  does 
not  confine  the  teacher  to  any  one  text-book,  any  systematic 
grammar  answering  the  purpose.  The  teacher  can  construct 

his  own  question  and  answer  exercises  himself 
The  Text-Book 

Merely  a  better  than  any  book  can  do  it  for  him,  for  he 

Foundation.  alone  knows  the  difficulties  the  class  has.  In- 
deed there  will  be  more  life  and  freedom  in  the  work,  if 
neither  teacher  nor  pupil  is  bound  to  a  text-book  written  on 
this  plan.  At  the  most  the  suggested  development  of  the 
grammar  and  the  sentences  given  ought  merely  to  be  regarded 
as  a  foundation  and  guide  for  the  work.  The  teacher  needs 
a  clear  insight  into  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  German 
grammar,  and  should  then  plan  a  series  of  exercises  to  give 
the  most  practice  in  the  least  time  on  each. 

As  I  have  intimated  above,  the  vocabulary  will  for  a  long 
time  be  merely  common  objects  in  the  school-room,  especially 
objects  which  can  be  easily  manipulated,  for  example,  pen- 
cils, books,  paper,  chalk,  penholders,  blackboard,  door,  win- 

1  "Lehrbuch  der  deutschen  Sprache,"  Spanhoofd,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


128  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

dows,  etc.  In  addition  to  nouns  a  number  of  verbs  is  needed 
of  course.  At  first  the  knowledge  of  the  present  tense  will 

suffice — verbs  expressing  action,  or  a  state* 
P16  like  "gehen,  kommen,  stehen,  sitzen,  setzen, 

liegen,  legen,  offnen,  schliessen,  geben,  leihen, 
nehmen,  sehen,"  etc.  Then  adjectives  of  form,  size,  and 
color,  and  some  prepositions  and  adverbs  will  be  enough 
to  make  a  start.  The  vocabulary  will  gradually  change,  of 
course,  for  the  sake  of  variety.  The  teacher,  for  example, 
can  fill  his  pockets  with  useful  material,  or  even  go  so  far  as 
to  bring  a  cup  and  saucer,  or  a  knife,  fork,  and  spoon.  But, 
as  I  have  said,  our  main  object  is  to  teach  grammar,  in  the 
preliminary  stages.  Therefore  we  must  use  common  objects 
with  which  the  pupils  are,  by  constant  repetition,  perfectly 
familiar,  both  in  meaning  and  in  inflection,  at  least  as  far  as 
we  have  gone,  so  that  they  can  focus  their  whole  attention 
upon  the  one  grammatical  point  we  wish  to  teach.  If  we 
kept  changing  the  objects  and  the  verbs,  etc.,  the  pupils 
would  be  troubled  and  easily  confused  with  gender,  etc.,  and 
concentration  on  the  point  in  question  would  be  less  effective 
in  its  results.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  select  objects 
in  the  school-room.  The  work  is  easier  to  handle  and  can 
be  made  more  definite  than  if  we  choose  our  vocabulary  at 
random.  The  objects  are  before  the  class,  and  the  quasi- 
tricks  the  teacher  does  with  them  give  the  series  of  question 
and  answer  a  kind  of  logical  connection ;  at  least  there  is 
sufficient  unity  in  the  work  for  the  pupils  to  follow.  With 
skill,  too,  the  teacher  can  make  the  naturalness  of  the  work 
greater  by  transitional  sentences  in  German.  The  school- 
room, with  its  pictures,  books,  tables,  pupils,  and  teacher, 


QEAMMAE.  129 

etc. ;  then  the  parts  of  various  objects  that  the  pupil  ought 
to  know,  including  parts  of  the  body,  and  different  articles 
of  clothing,  offer  a  large  field  for  work.  When  the  school- 
room is  exhausted,  there  is  the  home  or  a  definite  part  of  the 
home  to  picture  definitely  to  themselves  and  "  talk  grammar  " 
about. 

Further  development  will  hardly  be  called  for  with  high 
school  pupils,  for  from  this  preliminary  stage  of  the  language 
they  pass  to  a  more  natural  stage  of  conversation  based  upon 

the  reading.  In  fact  the  two  kinds  of  work 
Conversation 

Based  on  follow  each  other  directly,  for  after  a  section 

of  grammar  has  been  treated  in  this  first  way  a 
reading  exercise  based  upon  the  section  in  question,  such  as 
found  in  Thomas's  Grammar,  is  studied,  and  then  serves 
among  other  things  as  material  for  a  little  conversation. 

Let  us  take  the  personal  pronouns  for  the  sake  of  a  further 

illustration.     We  first  make  the  division  between  personal 

and  non-personal  uses.     The  personal  we  again  split  up  into 

smaller  groups.     A  natural  one  would  be  the 

Pronouns  use  °^  tne  ^rs*  anc^  secon(^  person,  first  "  ich  " 

and  "  Sie,"  then  "  ich  "  and  "  du."  If  the 
pupils  know  the  declension  of  the  first  and  second  person, 
singular  and  plural,  the  work  will  go  faster  the  first  day.  If 
the  teacher  prefers,  however,  the  forms  can  be  given  when 
needed.  We  then  arrange  a  short  exercise  of  simple  ques- 
tions and  answers  in  which  the  pupils  are  forced  to  use  the 
different  cases,  first  the  singular,  and  then  the  plural  forms. 
The  nominative,  through  use  with  the  verb,  is  probably  well 
known,  so  the  time  can  be  spent  on  the  dative  and  accusative. 
With  the  verbs  "  geben,  nehmen,"  etc.,  and  a  number  of 
10 


130  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

objects,  the  forms  "mir  —  Ihnen,  mich  —  Sie"  will  be 
readily  handled  by  the  class. 

Haben  Sie  ein  deutsches  Buch?  Ja,  ich  habe  ein  deut- 
sches  Buch.  Geben  Sie  mir  das  Buch.  Was  tun  Sie  ?  Ich 
gebe  Ihnen  ein  (deutsches)  Buch.  C.,  haben  Sie  auch  ein 
franzosisches  Buch  ?  Geben  Sie  mir  das  Buch.  Was  tun 
Sie  ?  Ich  gebe  Ihnen  das  Buch.  Welches  Buch  geben  Sie 
mir?  Ich  gebe  Ihnen  das  deutsche  Buch.  D.,  gibt  C. 
mir  ein  deutsches  oder  franzosisches  Buch  ?  Er  gibt  Ihnen 
ein  deutsches  Buch.  Ich  nehme  jetzt  das  andere  Buch.  E., 
welches  Buch  gibt  er  mir  jetzt  ?  Er  gibt  Ihnen  das  fran- 
zosische  Buch.  Haben  Sie  zwei  Bleistifte,  F.?  Welche 
Farben  haben  die  zwei  Bleistifte  ?  Sie  sind  rot  und  gelb. 
Leihen  Sie  mir  die  zwei  Bleistifte  einen  Augenblick.  Was 
tut  er,  G.?  Er  leiht  Ihnen  zwei  Bleistifte.  Was  fiir  Blei- 
stifte leiht  er  mir?  Er  leiht  Ihnen  einen  roten  und  einen 
gelben  Bleistift.  Jetzt  gebe  ich  Ihnen  die  Bleistifte.  Was 
tue  ich  ?  Sie  geben  mir  die  Bleistifte.  Etc. 

The  work  must  go  fast,  though  of  course  not  too  hurriedly 
or  with  careless  pronunciation.  Having  once  well  started 
the  work,  the  teacher  can  hand  over  the  exercise  to  the 
pupils  themselves,  and  let  them  ask  the  questions  and  give 
the  answers.  Ten  minutes,  or  if  the  class  is  working  well 
perhaps  fifteen  minutes,  is  enough,  then  change  to  something 
else.  The  next  day  a  quick  review  and  the  study  of  new 
forms,  and  practice  in  combining  them  with  the  older. 
Meanwhile  the  letter  in  Thomas's  Grammar  has  been  trans- 
lated, grammatical  difficulties  have  been  explained,  and  the 
verbs  and  nouns  are  well  under  control.  We  are  now  ready 
to  ask  questions  based  upon  the  text,  going  over  it  a  number 


GRAMMAR.  131 

of  times  so  as  to  give  practice  in  the  use  of  pronouns  of 
different  persons.  This  type  of  oral  work  is  purely  formal 
in  nature,  and  is  not  sufficient  to  master  the  difficulties  of 
German  grammar.  It  must  be  supplemented  at  every  turn 
by  much  oral  and  written  work  on  paradigms. 

Much   of  the   dullness  and   ineffectiveness   of  the   old- 
fashioned  recitation  of  paradigms  can  be  done  away  with 
by  a  variety  of  exercises  in   which  the  verb  occupies  the 
principal   place.     In  addition  to  conjugating 

Conjugation  of  ^e  ver^  forms  alone,  the  Reformers  advo- 
tne  Verb. 

cate    conjugating    in    entire    sentences ;    and 

the  kind  of  sentence  to  be  conjugated  is  taken  from  the 
reading  passage  being  studied.  Although  such  an  exer- 
cise may  be  carried  to  absurdity,  a  moderate  amount  is  ex- 
tremely valuable,  for  the  pupils  not  only  attain  certainty 
in  the  forms  of  the  verb,  but  also  facility  of  speech  is  gained, 
and  a  great  deal  of  practice  in  other  matters  of  form  and 
syntax.  Many  excellent  hints  for  work  of  this  kind  will  be 
found  in  Walter's  book.1 

Instead  of  conjugating  simply  "  ich  schreibe  "  in  all  forms, 
interrogative,  negative,  interrogative-negative,  throughout 
the  different  tenses,  we  can  also  take  such  a  sentence  from 
their  reading  as  : 

"  Ich  schreibe  meinem  Bruder  einen  Brief"  in  the  same 
way. 

Ich  schreibe  meinem  Bruder  einen  Brief  und  er  schreibt 
mir  einen. 

"Wir  schreiben  unsrem  Bruder  einen  Brief  und  er  schreibt 
uns  einen. 

1  "Der  franzosische  Klassenunterricht.  I.  Unterstufe,"  Walter,  Mar- 
burg, 1888. 


132  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

Du  schreibst  deinem  Bruder  einen  Brief  und  er  schreibt 
dir  einen. 

Ihr  schreibt  eurem  Bruder  einen  Brief  und  er  schreibt 
euch  einen,  etc. 

Another  example  is  the  conjugation  in  the  form  of  ques- 
tion and  answer.  One  pupil  asks  the  question,  the  next 
gives  the  answer,  and  so  on,  until  the  tense  is  complete. 

Ich  hatte  vor  ein  paar  Tagen  ein  kleines  Abenteuer. 

1.  Wann  hatte  ich  ein  kleines  Abenteuer  ? 

Vor  ein  paar  Tagen  hattest  du  (hatten  Sie)  ein  kleines 
Abenteuer. 

2.  Wann  hattest  du  ein  kleines  Abenteuer  ? 

Vor  ein  paar  Tagen  hatte  ich  ein  kleines  Abenteuer. 

3.  Wann  hatte  er  ein  kleines  Abenteuer  ? 

Vor  ein  paar  Tagen  hatte  er  ein  kleines  Abenteuer. 
Etc. 

Even  the  monotony  of  practice  on  simple  verb  forms  may 
be  relieved  by  a  large  variety  of  exercises.  If  we  take  the 
first  six  forms  in  a  given  reading  passage,  such  as  "  kam, 
bist,  geht,  erscheinen,  hatte,  sass,"  facility  in  the  use  of  forms 
may  be  acquired  as  follows  : 

1.  On  one  tense.     Each  pupil  takes  a  verb  as  it  appears 
in  order  in  the  text,  ich  komme,  ich  bin,  ich  gehe,  etc. 

2.  With  additional  change  of  person,  ich  komme,  du  bist, 
er  geht,  wir  erscheinen,  etc. 

3.  Further  change,  ich  komme,  du  bist  nicht,  geht  er  ?, 
erscheinen  wir  nicht  ?,  etc. 

If  each  pupil  takes  a  different  tense  in  order,  in  addition 
to  the  other  changes,  the  synopsis  becomes  very  complicated, 
ich  komme,  du  warst  nicht,  ist  er  gegangen  ?,  etc. 


GRAMMAR.  133 

For  further  illustration  of  similar  work  see  Walter's  book, 
quoted  above.  Such  exercises  are  not  intended  to  displace 
the  more  usual  drill  on  verb  forms,  they  will,  however,  add 
variety  to  verb  work,  and  thus  have  a  place  in  the  course. 

It  affords  excellent  practice  to  change  sentences  and  whole 
passages  that  admit  of  it,  not  only  as  regards  person  and 
number,  but  also  as  regards  tense.  A  simple  change  in  the 

verb  may  cause  a  number  of  other  changes  in 
Further  Drill.  „  ,        , 

the  sentences,  different  personal  and  possessive 

pronouns,  different  word  order.  During  the  study  of  the 
passive  voice  one  of  the  best  exercises  is  to  change  suitable 
sentences  from  the  active  into  the  passive  voice,  and  vice 
versa.  The  ordinary  reading  may  also  be  used  to  give  prac- 
tice in  the  use  of  the  dependent  word  order  by  employing 
such  formulas  as  "  ich  weiss  dass,  es  ist  nicht  wahr  dass,  ich 
glaube  nicht  dass,  ich  freue  mich  dass,"  in  connection  with 
principal  clauses.  Later,  a  similar  kind  of  exercise  can  be 
used  to  teach  indirect  discourse.  During  the  study  of  rela- 
tive pronouns  not  only  drill  in  word  order,  but  also  practice 
in  the  correct  use  of  the  relative  is  best  given  by  taking 
pairs  of  simple  sentences  from  the  reading  and  forming 
complex  sentences  from  them  containing  relatives.  Pupils 
also  need  much  practice  in  the  substitution  of  correct  pro- 
nouns for  nouns.  A  helpful  exercise  may  be  found  in  the 
first  German  Berlitz  book.  It  consists  of  questions  contain- 
ing a  number  of  nouns,  some  or  all  of  which  are  to  be  repre- 
sented in  the  answer  by  pronouns.  Also  answers  containing 
a  number  of  pronouns,  such  as  "  Nein,  sie  gibt  ihn  nicht  ihr 
sondern  ihm,"  from  which  suitable  questions  containing 
appropriate  nouns  shall  be  formed. 


134  THE   TEACHING   OF    GERMAN. 

For  those  who  regard  such  work  in  "  living  grammar  "  as 
too  unnatural,  too  mechanical,  there  still  remains  the  more 
usual  drill  on  a  particular  point  by  numerous  examples. 
This  drill  is  given  in  at  least  two  ways  in  Ger- 
Exercises  many.  Believers  in  translation  give  a  number 

of  short  sentences  embodying  the  point  in 
question  in  the  mother-tongue,  which  are  then  translated 
orally  into  the  foreign  language.  The  other  school  prefers 
using  the  inductive  method  to  a  large  extent,  making  their 
pupils  give  illustrative  examples  that  they  have  had  in  their 
reading,  and  that  they  are  now  collecting,  in  order  to  fix  the 
rule.  This  last  way  is  extremely  effective  in  its  results  if 
controlled  by  a  teacher  who  knows  how  to  keep  the  material 
contained  in  the  reading  alive.  As  both  kinds  of  exercises 
are  aimed  to  give  considerable  drill  on  one  difficulty  at  a 
time,  and  to  gradually  build  up  the  whole  structure  of  gram- 
mar by  good  examples,  they  are  bound  to  show  good  results 
in  the  work  of  the  class.  Personally  I  prefer  the  "  living 
grammar  "  plan  by  which  almost  all  the  work  is  carried  on 
in  German  in  the  preliminary  stage.  Later,  English  sen- 
tences and  examples  from  the  reading  based  upon  a  given 
point  of  grammar,  either  to  be  written  or  given  orally, 
furnish  an  important  supplement.  After  all  the  main  thing 
is  steam-hammer  exercises  on  all  that  is  fundamental,  and 
without  these  German  grammar  cannot  be  taught  successfully. 
German  conversation  in  its  first  stages,  without  a  distinct 
grammatical  tendency,  will  be  just  as  ineffective  and  super- 
ficial as  writing  a  few  German  sentences  on  a  whole  chapter 
of  grammar. 

In  every  well-constructed  course  the  grammar  will  not 


GRAMMAR.  135 

be  studied  through  once  for  all.  It  goes  almost  without  say- 
ing that  the  first  time  is  not  sufficient.  At  first  only  the  abso- 
titi  f  ^u*e  essentials  are  taught,  principally  the  kn  owl- 
Grammar  edge  of  forms  and  the  more  simple  rules  of 
study.  syntax  and  word  order,  the  study  of  which  it 

is  presupposed  will  be  included  in  the  study  of  the  various 
chapters  of  grammar. 

The  aim  of  the  first  course  is  to  give  the  class  power  to 
read  easy  texts,  and  pave  the  way  to  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  grammar  and  syntax  and  power  to  handle  the 

language  generally.     As   the    Report   of  the 
First  Course.  J  '  J  ,. 

Committee  of  Twelve  practically  embodies  my 

own  ideas  for  both  courses,  I  will  give  them  here  : 

"Drill  upon  the  rudiments  of  grammar,  that  is,  upon 
the  inflection  of  the  articles,  of  such  nouns  as  belong 
to  the  language  of  every-day  life,  of  adjectives,  pronouns, 
weak  verbs  and  the  more  usual  strong  verbs,  also  upon  the 
use  of  the  more  common  prepositions,  the  simpler  uses  of 
the  modal  auxiliaries,  and  the  elementary  rules  of  syntax  and 
word-order." 

The  conjugation  of  the  subjunctive,  or  at  least  its  use, 
had  better  be  reserved  until  the  second  course  of  grammar 
study.  For  high  school  classes  one  year  ought  to  be  suffi- 
cient for  this  preliminary  study. 

The  next  year  and  the  following  years  ought  to  be  spent 
in  reviewing  and  adding  to  the  work  done  in  the  first  year. 
There  should  be  a  constant  review  of  forms,  and  particularly 

a  detailed  study  of  syntax.     The  Committee 
Second  Course.  ,  ,    .    .        ., 

of  Twelve  again  oners  a  good  brief  guide  to 

the  more  important  points  to  be  considered. 


136  THE  TEACHING   OF  GERMAN. 

"The  work  should  comprise,  .  .  .  also  grammatical  drill 
upon  the  less  usual  strong  verbs,  the  use  of  the  articles, 
cases,  auxiliaries  of  all  kinds,  tenses  and  modes  (with  special 
references  to  the  infinitive  and  subjunctive),  and  likewise 
upon  word-formation." 

During  the  first  year  the  study  of  the  grammar  will 
doubtless  be  a  daily  occupation  of  the  class,  and  closely 
related  to  all  other  work  done  in  the  course.  But  as  the 

reading  assumes  greater  importance  after  the 
Grammar  Days.  °  r 

first   year,  it   will   probably  be   found   more 

advantageous  to  set  apart  a  day,  or  days,  each  week,  as  is 
deemed  desirable,  and  treat  the  subject  of  grammar  by  topics, 
as  fully  as  the  present  knowledge  of  the  class  warrants. 
The  adoption  of  this  plan,  however,  does  not  mean  that 
grammar  is  to  be  a  "tabooed"  subject  on  other  days.  On 
the  contrary,  the  topic  that  furnished  the  basis  of  the  work 
on  "  grammar  day  "  ought  to  be  illustrated,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  it  furthered,  either  by  the  reading,  the  oral,  or  the 
written  work,  or  by  all  three.  As  an  essential  part  of  the  plan 
of  this  topical  study,  I  suggest  that  the  pupils  go  botanizing 
so  to  speak.  After  the  general  bearings  of  the  topic  are 
known,  they  should  collect  and  keep  in  an  exercise-book 
illustrative  examples  from  their  reading.  If  carefully  done 
and  afterwards  made  use  of,  such  study  ought  to  aid  in  the 
pupil's  securing  a  good  grasp  of  the  salient  facts  of  German 
grammar. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
WRITTEN  EXERCISES. 

WRITTEN  work  falls  naturally  under  two  heads  : 

1.  Written  exercises  of  imitative  character  in  which  the 
mother- tongue  is  avoided. 

2.  Composition  as  usually  understood,  i.  e.,  translation 
from  English  into  German. 

We  will  take  them  up  in  the  order  given. 

No  one  will  disagree  from  the  opinion  that  written  exer- 
cises ought  to  be  given  a  prominent  place  in  modern  lan- 
guage work.  They  are  one  of  the  most  effective  tests  of 
thoroughness  and  accuracy,  a  check  against  the  superficiality 
which  is  so  likely  to  arise  when  the  pupil  is  not  made  to 
feel  that  he  is  accountable  to  the  teacher  for  the  right  spell- 
ing of  the  forms,  and  if  the  oral  work  is  not,  at  every  point, 
supplemented  by  writing.  Little  errors  inadvertently  creep 
into  the  best  oral  work,  and  in  time  are  difficult  to  eradicate. 
It  is  not  always  possible  for  the  teacher  to  tell  by  the  pro- 
nunciation whether  the  grammatical  forms  are  correct  or  not, 
and  often  the  teacher  only  hears  the  right  form  in  his  mind. 
Written  exercises  give  a  fitting  finish,  for  the  time  being,  to 
the  oral  work  on  any  material,  and  fortunately  they  can  also 
be  made  interesting  to  the  pupils,  another  thing  in  their 
favor.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  the  written  work 
should  be  identical  in  form  with  the  oral,  but  it  should  al- 
ways be  old  material ;  it  should  contain  no  new  words  or 

137 


138  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

expressions.  It  practically  means  that  a  r6sum6  of  all  that 
it  is  most  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  retain  should,  as  a  final 
test,  be  put  in  writing.  Naturally  then  the  type  of  work 
will  be  for  a  long  time  purely  imitative,  closely  associated  at 
every  point  with  the  oral  exercises,  or,  if  another  type  of 
composition  is  being  studied,  the  reading.  Written  work 
based  upon  material  which  the  pupils  have  not  thoroughly 
prepared,  either  by  oral  practice  or  by  some  equally  effective 
means,  is  almost  sure  to  be  poor  in  results.  It  is  too  much 
to  expect  of  pupils  that  they  should  write  well  in  a  foreign 
language  on  any  other  than  the  imitative  basis. 

We  may  also  divide  written  exercises  of  the  first  kind  into  : 

1.  Writing  of  memorized  work,  either  single  sentences, 
colloquies,  or  poems.     Colloquies  that  have  been  thoroughly 
studied  seem  to  me  to  be  best  adapted  to  this  grade.     With 

pupils  of  high  school  age  the  study  of  poems 
w^  °ome  later,  when  they  have  acquired  a 
fair  knowledge  of  vocabulary  and  grammar. 
Then  naturally  a  few  poems  are  given  to  be  learned  by 
heart.  Writing  down  would  only  be  given  as  an  exercise  to 
test  more  especially  whether  all  the  members  of  the  class  had 
learned  the  poem.  It  would  be  rather  uninteresting  to  hear 
each  member  of  the  class  recite  the  same  thing. 

2.  Dictation.     This  is  rather  a  higher  type  of  exercise 
than  the  foregoing,  inasmuch  as  hearing  is  added  to  memory. 
It  can  be  made  of  various  degrees  of  difficulty  and  thus  used 
for  all  classes,  though  in  the  first  year  the  most  time  will  be 
given  to  it  while  the  pupils  are  learning  to  spell.     The  ordi- 
nary pupil  hears  and  sees  badly  at  first.     Everyone  knows 
that  it  is  not  an  easy  fight  to  teach  pupils  to  spell  correctly,  to 


WRITTEN   EXERCISES.  139 

impress  upon  them  the  importance  of  seeing  each  new  word 
accurately  for  the  first  time.  Dictation  is  also  valuable  as  a 
test  for  grammatical  sureness. 

Success  in  dictation  will  depend  largely  upon  : 

1.  Material. 

2.  Manner  of  reading. 

3.  Length  of  the  dictation. 

4.  Correction. 

With  high  school  pupils  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  begin 
with  individual  words.  The  unit  can  be  the  sentence,  and 
this  we  wish  the  pupil  both  to  catch  the  meaning  of,  and 
interpret  orthographically  and  grammatically 
correctly  by  means  of  the  written  symbols. 
Here  again  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  choos- 
ing old  material,  with  which  the  pupils  are  very  familiar,  for 
dictating  purposes.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  attempt  for 
some  time  to  dictate  unstudied  connected  work,  even  as  an 
experiment.  If  only  old  material  is  used,  a  great  many  mis- 
takes in  orthography  and  grammar  are  avoided,  and  this  is 
just  what  we  wish  to  do.  The  exercise  is  not  primarily  to 
see  how  many  mistakes  the  pupils  will  make  in  spelling,  but 
rather  to  see  how  few.  After  a  selection  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied  in  many  ways  and  the  pupils  are  quite  at 
home  with  it,  then,  and  only  then,  have  we  a  right  to  expect 
pupils  in  the  elementary  stages  of  the  language  to  write  dic- 
tation based  upon  it.  As  suitable  material  for  dictation 
purposes,  then,  I  suggest,  for  some  time,  a  part  of  the  review 
of  the  reading  lesson.  It  can  be  assigned  beforehand  or  not, 
depending  on  the  age  and  ability  of  the  class.  In  this  way 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  will  be  free  enough  to  catch  whole 


140  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

phrases,  and  later  whole  sentences,  and  not  be  slavishly  bound 
down  to  the  orthography  of  each  word.  With  this  kind  of 
dictation  even  weak  pupils  do  not  feel  that  they  are  attempt- 
ing the  impossible,  and  thus  they  are  not  so  likely  to  get  con- 
fused, a  state  which  soon  leads  to  getting  behind  and  glaring 
inaccuracies.  In  time  the  well-studied  review  will  be  found 
too  simple,  especially  for  the  brighter  scholars  who  may  be 
found  writing  ahead  from  memory.  The  teacher  can  easily 
avoid  this  state  of  affairs  by  various  changes  in  the  selection  it- 
self, such  as  change  of  person,  tense,  word  order,  construction, 
or  the  introduction  of  words  with  which  the  pupil  is  already 
familiar.  From  this  point  the  dictation  can  be  graded  to  a 
certain  extent  up  to  the  unseen,  which  is  now  and  then  use- 
ful as  a  searching  test  of  accuracy  in  hearing  and  under- 
standing and  grammatical  knowledge  in  the  highest  classes, 
A  word  is  necessary  about  the  manner  of  reading.  In  the 
earlier  stages,  where  the  dictation  closely  resembles  reading 
matter  with  which  the  pupils  are  familiar,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  read  over  a  section  before  the  real  dictation 

Manner  of  begins.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  work  is  an 
Reading. 

unseen  passage  it  is  far  the  better  plan  to  read 

over  at  least  sections  of  the  whole  dictation  beforehand.  It 
gives  the  pupils  a  better  sense  of  security,  and  they  have 
time  to  think  of  the  meaning  and  of  the  grammatical  rela- 
tions that  appear.  It  is  no  longer  mere  groping  in  the  dark. 
Considerable  time  is  required  to  get  the  right  tempo  in  which 
to  read  out  the  phrases  into  which  each  sentence  naturally 
divides  itself.  Having  once  decided  the  general  rate  con- 
sistent with  careful  writing,  it  should  be  made  an  inviolable 
rule  not  to  repeat.  There  are  pupils  in  every  class  who 


WRITTEN   EXERCISES.  141 

would  spend  half  their  time  raising  their  hands  and  asking 
the  teacher  to  repeat.  They  must  learn  to  get  it  the  first 
time.  Such  interruptions  are  annoying  to  the  good  pupils, 
and  detract  greatly  from  the  value  of  the  dictation  as  a  class 
exercise.  After  the  whole  has  been  dictated,  a  second  mod- 
erately slow  and  distinct  reading  gives  the  pupils  a  chance 
both  to  fill  in  anything  that  was  lost  at  the  first  reading,  and 
also  to  correct  any  errors  in  form  now  made  easier  with  the 
context  before  them.  If  necessary,  a  third  rapid  reading 
may  follow. 

To  judge  from  dictations  I  have  seen  and  those  which 
have  been  suggested  in  books,  they  are  usually  made  too 
long.  A  dictation  of  20  or  25  minutes  seems  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  this  kind  of  exercise.  It 
would  be  far  wiser  to  give  them  oftener  and  of 
shorter  duration.  Five  or  six  minutes  of  actual  writing 
time  seems  ample.  If  carried  on  much  longer  the  attention 
of  the  class  falls  off  perceptibly,  and  with  that  the  degree  of 
accuracy  is  lowered. 

Corrections  ought  always  to  be  made  in  class,  directly 
after,  each  pupil  correcting  his  own  work.  This  seems  pre- 
ferable to  exchanging  papers.  It  is  only  when  the  pupil 

makes  his  own  corrections  that  he  gets  the  full 
Corrections. 

benefit  01  the  work.     If  the  reading  lesson  is 

the  basis,  then  the  work  of  correction  is  easily  accomplished. 
Any  change  can  be  met  by  the  teacher.  Other  unseen  ma- 
terial can  be  written  on  the  board  by  the  pupils,  either  dur- 
ing the  dictation  or  afterwards,  saving  time  by  sending  a 
number  at  once.  Correction  follows  by  aid  of  the  whole 
class.  It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  simply  telling 


142  THE  TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

the  pupils  to  correct  is  not  enough.  Even  with  the  correct 
copy  before  them,  pupils  need  the  control  of  the  teacher  if  all 
the  mistakes  are  to  be  made  right.  If  the  class  is  sufficiently 
prepared  for  the  dictation  there  ought  to  be  very  few  mis- 
takes made.  After  the  correction  the  work  dictated  offers  a 
good  field  for  further  grammatical  or  conversational  drill 
the  teacher  dwelling  more  particularly  on  the  common  faults 
of  the  class. 

After  these  lower  forms  of  written  work  follows  unlimited 
imitative  work  which  can  be  graded  in  kind  and  character  to 
suit  all  classes  in  secondary  schools.     The  various  oral  gram- 
matical exercises  discussed  in  the  chapters  on 
Further  Work.     _  .. 

Grammar  and  Conversation,  all  lend  themselves 

to  writing  in  some  form  or  other. 

Chief  among  the  various  kinds  of  exercises  will  be  the 

question  and  answer  form  already  described  in  the  chapters 

on  grammar,  and  work  in  speaking.     In  the  first  year  of  the 

course  very  little  beyond  variations  of  this  form 

ought  to  be  tried.     Even  in  the  second  year 

unu  Answer.  •* 

this  type  of  exercise  should  receive  a  good  deal 
of  emphasis.  How  much  will  depend  upon  the  average 
ability  of  the  class.  In  the  first  year  the  pupils  will,  as  a 
rule,  write  the  questions  down  from  dictation,  and  afterwards 
fill  in  the  required  answers.  Later  only  the  answers  need  be 
written,  or  a  simple  answer  dictated  and  the  fitting  question 
required.  This  latter  type  is  good  work  for  home  prepara- 
tion. By  splitting  a  short  story  into  suitable  questions,  the 
pupils  learn  most  easily  the  proper  way  to  study  a  story  for 
conversational  purposes.  As  already  shown  in  the  former 
chapter,  this  form  of  question  and  answer  is  capable  of  con- 


WRITTEN   EXERCISES.  143 

siderable  development.  At  first  the  simple  questions  will 
practically  contain  all  the  answer.  Later,  the  question  may 
be  quite  different  in  its  vocabulary,  or  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
require  an  answer  of  considerable  length. 

Almost  from  the  beginning,  if  such  a  book  as  Thomas's 
"  Practical  German  Grammar  "  is  used,  the  letter  which  has 
been  previously  studied  orally  can  be  used  as  a  basis  for 

answers  of  some  length.  One  has  to  guard 
oi^Materiai  again8*  *°o  close  adherence  to  the  text,  for 

many  pupils  try  to  remember  the  piece  ver- 
batim, and  go  to  pieces  when  they  cannot  recall  each  word 
as  it  comes.  This  can  be  avoided  partly  by  requiring  the 
contents  to  be  given  in  a  different  person  or  tense,  but  largely 
by  more  intensive  work  on  the  story  or  letter  in  question. 
If  the  story  is  worked  through  carefully,  and  the  old  mate- 
rial, words,  and  phrases,  also  worked  into  it,  the  average 
pupil  ought  to  be  able  to  give  the  contents,  in  a  simple  form, 
satisfactorily. 

Still  another  exercise  which  pupils  find  interesting  and 
one  which  avoids  mere  verbatim  writing,  is  the  combination 
of  several  letters,  or  letters  and  colloquies,  such  as  are  found 

in  the  above-mentioned  grammar,  in  the  form 
tiorTwork  °^ an  °"S^na^  composition.  For  the  benefit  of 

the  weaker  pupils,  and  to  save  time,  the  teacher 
can  suggest  a  skeleton  plan,  the  ingenuity  of  each  individual 
filling  in  the  details  in  a  simple  form,  using  only  old  words 
and  phrases.  The  ingenious  teacher  can  easily  devise  other 
exercises  with  this  as  a  basis. 

When  the  pupils  have  studied  the  main  chapters  of  Ger- 
man grammar,  especially  when  the  main  types  of  word  order 


144  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

can  be  handled,  short  anecdotes  furnish  excellent  practice 
for  writing  contents.  The  teacher  should  make  for  himself  a 
collection  of  interesting  anecdotes  graded  in  difficulty.  When 
this  exercise  is  first  introduced,  the  anecdote  should  be  read 

by  the  pupils  and  studied  orally  before  the 
Tfce  Anecdote.       , 

simple  contents  are  required  of  him.    Later,  the 

pupil  can  be  given  a  few  minutes  to  read  over  the  selection 
himself.  After  that,  varying  with  the  age  and  ability  of  the 
high  school  class,  the  simple  reading  over  to  the  class  two 
or  three  times,  explaining  uncommon  words,  etc.,  if  neces- 
sary, will  be  sufficient.  This  last  mentioned  is  practically 
the  highest  type  of  class  work  that  can  be  attempted.  It 
presupposes  a  considerable  degree  of  familiarity  with  the 
formal  side  of  the  language,  a  large  vocabulary,  and  a  good 
deal  of  training  in  hearing.  As  a  preparatory  course  to  this 
type  of  exercise  all  kinds  of  exercises  in  hearing  help,  more 
particularly  when  easy  anecdotes  and  stories  read  out  to  the 
class  are  given  in  English,  either  orally  or  in  writing. 

If  such  a  book  as  Kron's  "  German  Daily  Life  "  is  used  in 
the  second  or  third  year,  the  variations  of  the  general  grades 
I  have  outlined  above  :  (1)  question  and  answer,  (2)  contents 
of  lesson  in  German,  are  only  limited  by  the 
P°wers  of  the  teacher.  Imaginary  dialogues 
can  be  written  utilizing  the  chapters  of  the 
"  Daily  Life,"  scenes  at  the  hotel,  shopping,  at  the  railway 
station,  etc.  Examples  of  suggestive  work  for  American 
classes  can  be  found  in  a  large  number  of  German  writings 
on  method,  given  in  the  bibliography.  The  only  caution  to 
be  given  here  is  that  there  should  be  a  gradation  in  difficulty 
suited  to  each  stage. 


WEITTEN   EXERCISES.  145 

The  highest  type  of  school  composition  is  the  essay  or  the 

letter,  to  which  all  the  various  kinds  of  oral  and  written 

exercises  of  imitative   character  lead,  step  by  step.     This 

freer  form  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  culmina- 

com  osition       ^on>  anc^  no*  ^tempted   until  the  pupil  has 
gained,    through    the   experience  of  years,    a 
familiarity  with  grammar,  a  fair  stock  of  expressions  and 
words,  and  that  indefinite  Sprachgefiihl  which  comes  from 
living  oneself  into  the  language  as  much  as  time  and  condi- 
tions allow.     Instead  of  closely  imitating  a  story  which  has 
been  studied  any  longer,  the  pupil  in  this  grade  of  work 
seeks  to  express  his  own  thoughts  in  simple  form.     It  is 
still  imitative  work,  for  he  will  naturally  only  weave  into 
the  composition  what  years  of  study  have  made  his  own  per- 
sonal possession.     Hence  the  teacher  will  have  to  see  that 
the  kind  of  subject,  and  the  treatment  of  subject,  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  the  pupil  can  draw  from  his  stock  of  knowl- 
edge, and  will  not  be  required  to  consult  his  dictionary  for 
every  other  word.     If  that  were  the  case,  the  exercise  would 
be  of  far  less  value  for  training  in  free  composition  than  a 
translation  into  German  of  a  definite  text.     How  much  of 
this  grade  of  work  can  be  attempted  in  the  rank  and  file  of 
secondary  schools,  and  when,  will  depend  largely   on  the 
length  of  the  course  and  school  conditions.     The  most  that 
can  be  said  is  that  the  essay  or  letter  form  should  only  come 
when  the  pupils  are  ready  for  it,  that  is,  when  they  have 
thoroughly  mastered  the  lower  forms  of  composition.     Each 
individual  teacher  must  decide  when  the  time  is  ripe.     Am- 
bitious teachers  are  most  likely  to  err  on  the  wrong  side ; 
for  original  composition  has  something  fascinating  about  it. 
11 


146  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

As  far  as  personal  experience  goes,  under  exceptionally  good 
circumstances,  a  good  beginning  in  simple  letter  writing  was 
made  at  the  end  of  the  second  year.  The  pupils,  however, 
were  in  the  last  year  of  the  high  school  course. 

It  is  only  fair  to  state  that  there  are  points  to  be  urged 
against  the  use  of  free  composition  to  the  exclusion  of  exer- 
cises in  translation.  There  is  danger  of  superficiality  inher- 

m    ,  .       ent  in  the  use  of  the  former  because  the  pupils 

Weakness  of 

Free  too  early  form  what  we  may  call  a  German 

Composition.       gtyle>      Ag  it  ig  baged  up(m  iQQ  glight  &  founda_ 

tion,  there  is  a  monotony  of  vocabulary  and  construction, 
particularly  in  the  construction.  While  such  a  grade  of 
work  commends  itself  because  it  gives  repeated  practice  in  a 
narrow  field,  still  there  is  danger  that  the  real  difficulties  of 
German  composition  will  be  avoided,  and  that  the  pupil  will 
work  along  too  narrow  a  groove.  Face  to  face  with  a  thought 
which  requires  considerable  grasp  of  the  medium  of  expres- 
sion, he  will  baulk,  and  give  but  a  weak  paraphrase.  To 
acquire  a  more  complete  mastery,  the  pupil  must  be  taught 
that  while  endeavoring  to  keep  his  thought  simple  he  must 
make  difficulties  for  himself  to  surmount,  or  perhaps  after 
all  it  will  be  the  better  plan  to  use,  in  connection  with  the 
work,  a  composition  book  in  which  such  difficulties  appear. 
One  might  also  enlarge  upon  the  demands  free  composition 
in  the  higher  forms  makes  upon  the  knowledge  of  the  average 
teacher,  demands  which  he  cannot  honestly  meet.  It  cer- 
tainly would  be  better,  under  such  circumstances,  to  make 
the  well-edited  composition  book  the  basis  for  study  of  the 
higher  forms  of  written  exercises. 

Many  of  the  adherents  of  the  Reform  movement  believe 


WRITTEN   EXERCISES.  147 

that  the  major  part  of  the  written  work  should  be  done  in 

the  class-room  and  not  set  as  home-work.     My  own  personal 

experience  has  also  convinced  me  that  this  is 

Home-work  or  ^     proper   way  to  secure   the   best   results, 
Class-Work  ?  J 

although  some  few  exercises  can  well  be  as- 
signed for  home  preparation,  for  example :  formation  of  ques- 
tions on  a  given  text,  sentences  illustrating  some  grammati- 
cal point,  and  notably  the  essay  and  letter  form.  The  amount 
of  time  written  exercises  take  is  more  than  compensated  for 
by  the  more  intensive  character  of  the  work  done  in  class. 
Aside  from  the  fact  that  it  shows  exactly  what  each  pupil 
can  do,  not  always  easy  to  determine  where  the  work  is  done 
out  of  class,  the  teacher,  at  least  in  smaller  classes,  can  be 
of  greater  individual  assistance.  He  can  diagnose  the  diffi- 
culties of  each  pupil  better,  and  correct  and  guide  the  work 
as  it  is  being  done.  If,  for  example,  the  class  is  engaged  in 
writing  out  the  contents  of  a  reading  lesson  in  German,  it  is 
quite  possible  for  the  average  teacher  with  a  class  of  15—20 
to  go  from  desk  to  desk,  questioning  a  form  or  expression 
here,  making  suggestions  there.  In  this  way  a  large  num- 
ber of  grammatical  and  syntactical  points  can  come  under 
discussion,  and  it  is  sometimes  even  possible  to  correct  the 
written  work  there  and  then. 

Modern  American  schools  are  usually  singularly  well 
equipped  with  blackboards,  often  extending  on  three  sides 
of  the  room.  Written  exercises  of  all  kinds  can  thus  play  a 

far  greater  r6le  than  in  the  German  schools. 

Tt  is  rather  an  "art"  to  do  successful  board 
work  with  a  large  class,  but  if  once  learned, 

the  results  are  worth  the  pains  of  acquiring  it.     There  is 


148  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

hardly  a  kind  of  exercise  that  one  cannot  adapt  to  board 
work.  Moreover  work  written  on  the  board  gives  the 
teacher  a  good  opportunity  to  do  most  valuable  class-work, 
as  distinct  from  the  individual  work  I  have  suggested  above. 
Class  correction  of  board-work  is  also  another  important 
point  in  its  favor.  It  lightens  considerably  the  labor  of 
correcting  papers  outside  school  hours.  Theoretically  speak- 
ing each  paper  ought  to  be  carefully  corrected,  and  after- 
wards the  chief  failures  discussed  in  class,  making  use  of  the 
black-board  to  make  corrections  clear.  But  when  we  con- 
sider the  amount  of  writing  necessary  in  a  class,  and  espe- 
cially the  amount  of  time  and  energy  the  modern  language 
teacher  has  to  employ  to  prepare  each  day's  lesson,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  many  exercises  only  receive  a  hasty  reading, 
if  read  at  all.  This  is  not  ideal,  but  heavy  programmes  and 
large  classes  will  make  this  often  a  dire  necessity,  if  relief 
does  not  come  from  the  work  done  in  the  class-room  itself. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

COMPOSITION. 

TRANSLATION  into  and  from  the  foreign  language  has 
played,  and  still  plays,  a  very  important  part  in  the  study  of 
foreign  languages.  Almost  any  elementary  Latin  book  you 
may  examine  is  divided  into  lessons,  and  these  lessons  con- 
tain grammar,  and  then  Latin  sentences  to  be  translated  into 
English,  and  English  sentences  to  be  translated  back  into 
Latin.  Modern  language  lesson  books  or  grammars  follow 
practically  in  the  same  footsteps.  To  judge  from  these 
books,  translation  seems  to  have  become  almost  universally 
regarded  as  the  method,  par  excellence,  of  acquiring  a  lan- 
guage other  than  one's  own.  The  tradition  that  has  been 
formed  in  the  course  of  generations  that  translation  exercises 
are  not  only  useful  but  fundamental  is  exceedingly  hard  to 
break.  The  young  teacher,  brought  up  himself  through  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Greek  and  the  modern  languages  in  this 
way,  naturally  works  along  in  the  same  rut.  He  may  have 
experienced  the  insufficiency  of  translation  in  his  own  educa- 
tion, still  from  force  of  habit,  and  because,  perhaps,  no  other 
way  suggests  itself  to  him,  the  method  by  which  he  was 
taught  becomes  in  turn  his  method  of  teaching.  The  result 
in  time  is  two  classes  of  teachers.  The  one  class  whose 
enthusiasm  is  deadened  by  the  daily  routine,  sometimes  of  no 
light  nature,  and  who  are  willing  to  continue  assigning  trans- 
lation day  after  day  with  no  thought  as  to  the  good  of  it  all. 

149 


150  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN 

The  other  class,  who  soon  find  out  the  inadequacy  of  trans- 
lation, and  begin  a  search,  by  all  kinds  of  experiments  at 
least  to  supplement  it,  if  not  to  do  without  it  entirely. 

It  is  to  this  latter  class  of  teachers  that  the  Reformers  in 
Germany  belong.  To  the  moderate  Reformers  belong  those 
who  do  not  see  the  necessity  of  doing  away  with  translation 

altogether.     To  them  it  is  a  valuable  exercise 
The  Reformers.  TIT  •  /*>  . 

among  other  valuable  exercises,  insufficient  in 

itself,  but   like  the  various  exercises  of  the   pianist   still 
important.     The  more  radical  Reformers  take  as  their  rule 
the  words  of  Vie'tor  written  over  thirty  years  ago,  "  Das 
Uebersetzen  in    fremde  Sprachen    ist  eine    Kunst,  welche 
die  Schule  nichts  angeht."  *    Originally  aimed  against  trans- 
lation into  the  foreign   language,   the  extreme  Reformers 
have  come  to  take  a  strong  position  against  all  translation. 
Let  us  examine  this  perplexing  chapter  in  language  study, 
first  discussing  the  disadvantages  of  translation  into  the  lan- 
guage to  be  learned.     In  this  way  perhaps  we  shall  be  better 
able  to  appreciate  the  arguments  in  favor  of  translation. 
The  disadvantages  we  have  to  describe  are  of  two  kinds : 
1.  Those  which  are  found  in  the  very  nature  of  the  exer- 
cise of  translation.     One  great  trouble  with  translation  is 
that  it  works  against  acquiring  what  we  mean  by  "Sprach- 
gefiihl,"  that  indefinite  something  which  allows 

of STransiatfon  us  *n  our  own  language  to  decide  intuitively, 

without  the  use  of  a  grammar,  what  is  English 

and  what  is  contrary  to  the  English  idiom.     This  feeling  for 

what  is  English  and  un-English  comes  to  us  through  years 

of  speaking,  of  reading,  and  reflecting  in  our  mother-tongue. 

1  "Der  Sprachunterricht  muss  umkehren  !",  Viator,  p.  31. 


COMPOSITION.  151 

The  formation  of  this  intuitive  sense  for  what  is  German 

and  what  is  not  can  only  be  won  in  the  same  way  as  far  as 

possible.     There  must  be  the  same  intensive 

,:• . .     living  oneself  into  the  German  language  before 
SpracngefuM. 

we  can  speak  of  mastery.  Within  as  broad 
limits  as  time  and  circumstances  will  allow,  we  must  make 
the  German  language  over  into  "  flesh  and  blood,"  as  it  were, 
and  this  is  only  to  be  accomplished  by  spending  as  much 
time  as  possible  in  the  foreign  language  itself.  As  long  as 
it  can  be  shown  that  clearness  and  definiteness  are  in  no  way 
sacrificed  by  it,  the  more  that  pupils  can  artificially  be  kept 
in  a  foreign  environment,  the  better.  Pupils  come  to  the 
German  class  strongly  predisposed  to  look  at  the  new  lan- 
guage from  the  English  standpoint.  For  some  fourteen 
years  they  have  been  speaking  and  studying  their  mother- 
tongue,  and  have  been  acquiring  the  strongest  impressions 
of  their  lives.  In  their  study,  notably  of  Latin,  they  have 
been  taught  largely  from  the  English  point  of  view.  If 
there  is  to  be  any  attempt  at  inculcating  Sprachgefiihl,  there 
must  be  a  decided  break  with  the  past.  Instead  of  emphasiz- 
ing the  English  at  every  turn,  as  is  most  surely  done  in  both 
kinds  of  translation,  it  must  be  kept  down  to  the  minimum 
consistent  with  good  clear  work.  Instead  of  emphasizing  the 
importance  of  translation  into  German,  other  exercises  in  the 
foreign  language,  which  do  what  is  claimed  for  translation  — 
only  better  and  in  a  far  better  way  —  must  be  brought  to 
the  fore.  Try  all  we  can,  however,  to  fight  down  the  mother- 
tongue,  it  cannot  be  subdued.  The  knowledge  of  it  that  the 
pupil  possesses  when  he  begins  German,  exercises  a  tremendous 
force  against  learning  that  language  as  a  second  mother- 


152  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

tongue.  The  cleverness  of  the  teacher  is  shown  in  control- 
ling the  great  stream,  preventing  it  from  bursting  its  banks 
and  flooding  the  country  allotted  to  the  new  language.  The 
teacher  must  make  use  of  this  great  power,  however,  wher- 
ever it  will  prove  to  be  an  aid,  just  as  the  manufacturer 
makes  use  of  the  stream  to  drive  his  mill  by  using  the  power 
of  the  water  at  a  point  where  it  will  be  most  effective. 
Whether  the  intentional  bringing  in  of  the  mother-tongue 
for  the  purpose  of  translation  is  the  best  means  of  furthering 
the  work,  cannot  be  settled  definitely  by  any  one  individual. 
I  am  sure  of  this,  however,  that  time  and  energy  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  gain  has  been  spent  in  the  past,  and  is 
being  spent  at  the  present  time,  in  translation.  It  ought  to 
be  used  sparingly,  and  under  the  conditions  outlined  below. 
How  sparingly,  will  depend  largely  upon  the  resources  of 
the  teacher  to  accomplish  what  is  claimed  for  translation  in 
another  way,  namely  by  exercises  which  move  in  the  lan- 
guage being  studied.  Unfortunately  many  otherwise  excel- 
lent teachers  have  not  the  command  of  the  foreign  language 
necessary  to  plan  a  course  which  shall  keep  down  English  to 
a  minimum.  It  is  manifestly  far  better  for  them  to  secure 
the  best  results  they  can,  using  a  type  of  exercise  for  which 
they  are  fitted. 

2.  Those  disadvantages  which  arise  from  the  kind  of  ma- 
terial used  for  translation,  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  used. 

These  last  two  factors,  material  and  method  of  utilization, 
either  augment  or  lessen  the  disadvantages  adherent  to  the 
exercise  itself.  In  fact  the  importance  of  the  inherent  evil 
in  a  moderate  amount  of  translation  is  small,  compared  with 
that  of  the  manner  in  which  the  exercise  is  carried  on. 


COMPOSITION.  153 

Translation  into  the  foreign  language  ought  to  presuppose 

a  thorough  knowledge  of  that  language.     It  goes  without 

saying  that  it  also  presupposes  a  thorough  knowledge  of 

the  mother  tongue.     It  is  a  process  of  eompari- 

Atmse  of  an(j  hence  for  successful  work,  the  things  to 

Translation. 

be  compared  must  be  known.   The  great  trouble 

with  much  of  exercise  writing  in  the  past  was  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  one  of  the  elements  to  be  compared,  namely  the  for- 
eign language,  was  regarded  as  unimportant.  Sometimes 
even,  notably  with  younger  pupils,  neither  element  was  ade- 
quately known.  Pupils  were  set  to  put  sentences  which 
were  but  half  understood  both  in  contents  and  form  into  a 
language  of  which  they  were  absolutely  ignorant,  the  lan- 
guage they  were  just  beginning  to  learn.  The  fallacy  was 
in  supposing  that,  with  a  grammar  and  dictionary,  a  tolerable 
translation  could  be  patched  together.  Unfortunately  lan- 
guages do  not  lend  themselves  to  this  rule  of  three  method. 
The  genius  of  the  German  and  French  language  is  so  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  English  that  a  serious  study  of  the  dif- 
ferences in  modes  of  expression  is  only  to  be  taken  up  at  the 
end  of  the  course,  and  not  at  the  beginning.  This  evil  was 
increased  by  the  stupidity  of  the  sentences  which  were  found 
in  the  grammars,  and  many  of  our  modern  grammars  are 
not  much  better  off.  Their  writers  are  still  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Meidinger  and  Ollendorf  as  far  as  their  sentences 
are  concerned.  The  task  they  set  before  themselves  is 
rather  an  arithmetical  one,  namely,  given  a  certain  number 
of  words  —  to  form  as  many  combinations  as  can  be  fitted 
together  under  a  given  point  of  grammar.  The  teacher,  for 
lack  of  something  better,  having  led  the  class  across  this 


154  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

desert,  supposed  them  to  be  fitted  for  the  composition  book, 
and  then  came  the  regular  composition  days  —  the  delight 
of  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

For  elementary  work  in  translation  of  this  kind  many 
modern  makers  of  text-books  have  tried  to  avoid  the  evil 
results  that  come  from  insufficient  knowledge,  and  conse- 
quent floundering  in  the  unknown,  by  so  con- 
Exercises  structing  the  sentences  that  they  shall  be  close 
imitations  of  an  original  text,  and  yet  at  the 
same  time  serve  as  a  discipline  of  sufficient  difficulty.  The 
result  of  this  arrangement  will  be  satisfactory  provided  the 
preliminary  steps  have  been  carefully  taken,  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  original  foreign  language  text  has  been  worked  over  care- 
fully in  the  ways  I  have  suggested  above.  If,  by  question 
and  answer  work  in  the  foreign  idiom  and  the  other  alternative 
means  I  have  mentioned,  the  vocabulary,  the  phrases,  and  the 
grammatical  material  of  the  text,  have  been  made  the  pupils' 
own,  then  imitative  translation  exercises  have  their  proper 
place  in  the  study,  and  teacher  and  pupil  will  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  knowing  that  they  will  turn  out  well.  It  is  merely 
another  way  of  working  over  what  has  become  the  pupil's 
possession  by  many  other  exercises.  The  pupil  then  gets,  by 
translating,  another  point  of  view,  namely  from  the  mother- 
tongue  side.  Just  as  each  successive  exercise  in  which  ma- 
terial was  studied  through  the  medium  of  the  foreign  language 
served  to  make  the  material  more  and  more  the  pupil's  own,  so 
this  kind  of  translation  exercise  forms  one  more  link  in  the 
chain.  After  a  little  field  has  been  worked  over  in  as  many 
ways  as  possible,  from  the  foreign  language  side,  this  type  of 
work  is  still  left  to  the  teacher  who  feels  there  is  need  of  it. 


COMPOSITION.  155 

My  own  experience  has  convinced  me  that  it  is  neither 
necessary  nor  advisable  to  translate  sentences  into  German 
until  pupils  have  had  some  experience  in  the  language.  If 

German  is  not  studied  until  the  third  year  in 
When  to  Begin. 

high   school   when   the   pupils   possess   some 

maturity,  the  latter  half  of  the  year,  when  the  time  comes  for 
reviewing  the  year's  grammatical  work,  has  proved  the  most 
opportune.  At  this  stage  the  chief  object  is  to  emphasize  the 
main  facts  of  grammar  and  to  gain  a  greater  degree  of  fluency, 
accuracy  and  unity  in  the  work.  Every  teacher  knows  that 
review  grammar  is  not  usually  a  success,  principally  because 
of  the  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  ele- 
ments of  grammar  no  longer  seem  fresh,  the  ordinary 
scholar  thinks  he  knows  it  well  enough  and  skims  over  the 
review  lesson  assigned.  If  the  sentences  under  the  various 
lessons  are  now  taken  up  for  the  first  time,  their  introduction 
has  the  desired  stimulating  effect  on  the  review  work.  The 
pupils,  accustomed  all  the  year  to  get  at  the  language  from 
the  foreign  side,  find  translation  a  pleasant  change.  It  is 
after  all  a  good  test  as  to  how  well  the  grammar  has  been 
taught.  The  sentences  of  value,  as  has  been  said,  should 
only  contain  material  with  which  the  pupils  ought  to  be 
familiar.  Moreover,  the  pupils  should  be  so  familiar  with 
the  vocabulary,  the  idiomatic  expressions,  and  the  grammat- 
ical principles  involved,  that  the  sentences  can  be  done 
quickly  and  accurately  at  sight.  If  the  pupils  make  blunder 
after  blunder,  show  insecurity  everywhere  in  word  and  form, 
they  are  not  ready  for  this  kind  of  work,  and,  if  it  is  con- 
tinued, nothing  but  harm  can  result. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  form  in  which  the  important  gram- 


156  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

matical  and  other  points  shall  be  introduced.     Of  late  years 

exercises  composed  of  short  sentences  between  which  there  is 

no  logical  connection  have  fallen  into  disrepute. 

Sentences  ^^  ^  an  exercise  m  rules  and  forms  is  aimed 
at,  it  is  the  easiest  and  most  natural  way 
for  a  teacher  or  writer  of  a  text-book  to  take.  Personally  I 
do  not  object  to  detached  sentences  provided  they  are  natural 
ones,  sentences  one  might  have  occasion  to  use,  and  that  are 
worth  the  expense  of  the  pupil's  time.  Any  other  kind  of 
detached  sentence  is  to  be  avoided,  and  their  number  in  lesson 
books  is  legion.  It  is  easy  to  explain  why.  In  the  first  place, 
the  composer  primarily  thinks  of  the  vocabulary  and  the 
rules  of  grammar  and  syntax  he  is  to  illustrate  in  the  exer- 
cise, and  too  willingly  sacrifices  the  rest.  In  the  second 
place,  good  sentences  are  most  difficult  to  write.  To  write  a 
book  full  of  natural  sentences,  and  yet  bring  out  all  the 
necessary  points  of  language  requires  a  clever  man.  I  know 
of  no  book  published  in  America  where  a  reading  lesson  in 
the  form  of  a  letter  or  a  dialogue  is  retold,  in  another  form, 
in  short  sentences.  The  suggestion  comes  from  Germany 
from  the  study  of"  The  English  Student/7 1  a  most  excellent 
book  for  the  study  of  English.  But  here  the  English  dialogue 
which  forms  the  basis  of  each  lesson  is  retold,  in  the  same 
language,  in  narrative  form.  What  I  suggest  would  be  to  go 
one  step  farther  and  have  the  corresponding  German  dialogue 
told  again  in  a  simple  English  translation.  However,  for  those 
teachers  who  emphasize  the  foreign  side  of  instruction  by 
question  and  answer,  etc.,  the  Hausknecht  scheme  of  simply 
giving  the  contents  of  the  dialogue  in  the  same  language  will 
1  "The  English  Student,"  Hausknecht. 


COMPOSITION.  157 

appear  the  better  plan.  For  those  who  still  cling  to  transla- 
tion and  emphasize  it  more  strongly,  it  is  suggested  as  a 
means  of  avoiding  the  disconnected  sentence,  and  as  a  valu- 
able exercise  on  the  previously  translated,  and  perhaps 
otherwise  studied,  reading  lesson. 

After  the  pupils  have  acquired  some  elementary  knowledge 
of  German  grammar  as  a  whole,  a  number  of  other  exercises 
can  be  arranged  by  the  teacher.  For  example,  a  part  of  the 
story  the  class  happens  to  be  reading  can  be 
Further  rewritten  in  English  in  shorter  and  simpler 

form  and  given  to  the  pupils  to  put  back  into 
German,  with  or  without  the  use  of  the  text,  depending  upon 
the  kind  of  preparation  required.  If  simply  a  translation  is 
the  general  rule,  without  any  previous  grammatical  study  or 
question  and  answer  work,  the  pupils  would  need  assistance 
of  some  kind.  How  much,  the  individual  teacher  must 
decide.  For  best  results,  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
exercise  is  built  should  have  been  thoroughly  made  known 
to  the  pupils  by  intensive  work  on  the  German.  Although 
this  kind  of  work  is  meant  primarily  to  give  the  pupils  prac* 
tice  in  grammar  and  syntax  in  general,  the  teacher  can 
intentionally  emphasize  a  point  or  points,  if  desirable,  thus 
making  it  more  specific. 

Suitable  German  dialogues  which  the  teacher  has  carefully 
translated  into  idiomatic  English  are  also  suggested  for  those 
who  have  time  for  it.  This  type  requires  more  advanced 
pupils  and  also  great  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in 
preparing  the  text  and  the  necessary  helps.  Dialogues  that 
can  be  recommended  to  teachers  for  the  purpose  are,  above 
all,  the  German  edition  of  Storm's  "Dialogues  francais- 


158  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

Franzosische  Sprechiibungen.  "  1  There  is  also  an  English 
edition  by  G.  Macdonald,  under  the  title  of  "French  Dia- 
logues" by  Joh.  Storm.2  Though  originally 
Dialogues  meant  for  the  study  of  French,  the  German 
translation  has  been  carefully  done.  The  dia- 
logues are  usually  natural,  and  are  arranged  to  give  practice 
on  the  specific  chapters  of  French  grammar,  a  fact  that  may 
appeal  to  many  teachers.  The  "  Echo  of  Spoken  German  " 3 
can  be  used  for  this  work  as  well  as  for  reading  colloquial 
German,  and  at  the  same  time  learning  something  about 
life  in  Germany. 

After  correction  and  class  criticism  the  bad  effects  of 

translation  can  in  part  be  removed  by  using  the  corrected 

written  exercise  as  a  basis  for  German  conversation.     In  fact, 

I  strongly  urge  that  all  prose  composition,  after 

being  translated  and  corrected,  should  be  used 
Dialogues.  ' 

for  conversation  or  for  retelling  in  German.  Or 
a  number  of  the  colloquies  in  Storm's  book  can  be  combined 
by  the  pupils  and  a  kind  of  original  dialogue  constructed. 
But  before  this  ought  to  be  tried,  the  individual  colloquies 
should  be  sufficiently  studied  by  the  pupils  in  the  recently 
written  and  corrected  form.  It  will  not  do  to  tell  the  pupils 
to  give  in  German  the  context  of  one  colloquy,  still  less  to 
combine  a  number  of  them,  after  simply  once  translating 
from  English  into  German.  The  colloquies  must  either  be 
learned  by  heart,  or,  better  still,  learned  by  heart  and  then 
picked  to  pieces  by  question  and  answer,  and  they  must 

1 "  Dialogues  francais-Franzosische  Sprechiibungen,"  Storm,  Bielefeld, 
2te.  Auflage,  1893. 

2  "French  Dialogues,"  Storm,  Q.  Macdonald,  London,  1892. 
*"  Echo  of  Spoken  German,"  A.  Hamann,  Leipzig. 


COMPOSITION.  159 

really  belong  to  the  pupils  before  their  reconstruction,  as 
outlined  above,  should  be  attempted. 

Instead  of  the  teacher  always  making  the  translation  or 
reconstructing  the  text,  the  pupils  can  profit  by  what  is 
known  as  double  translation,  practised  at  least  as  far  back  as 
the  days  of  Roger  Ascham  (1515-1568).  In 
^ac*  *n*s  translation  from  one  language  into  the 
other,  and  back  again,  is  the  backbone  of  As- 
cham's  method  as  described  in  the  "  Scholemaster."  One 
can  thus  employ  to  good  advantage  the  written  translations 
from  German  into  English  that  every  teacher,  I  suppose,  re- 
quires of  a  class.  I  do  not  refer  here  to  translations  which 
occur  from  time  to  time  to  test  the  work  of  the  class.  I 
mean  those  translations  which  the  teacher  requires  the  pupils 
to  prepare  with  the  words :  "  Make  the  very  best  translation 
you  can  ! "  Such  carefully  made  translations,  after  the 
teacher  has  talked  them  over,  can  then  be  put  back  into  the 
original  form.  Work  of  this  kind  in  comparison  is  no  doubt 
valuable,  especially  for  pupils  who  can  handle  the  language, 
and  thus  have  reached  a  stage  when  careful  comparison  can 
be  made  of  benefit  by  the  teacher. 

We  come  lastly  to  speak  of  composition  books,  of  which 

there  are  so  many.     I  look  upon  all  composition  books  more 

or  less  as  a  necessary  evil  in  secondary  work.     Personally  I 

can  well  do  without  them,  for  I  prefer,  if  there 

ipos  t  on       jg  ^  ^e  a      translation  of  connected  work  into 
Books.  » 

German,  to  arrange  the  material  myself.     Still 

there  are  many  teachers  who  feel  the  need  of  a  composition 
book  as  a  personal  aid,  and  the  importance  of  it  in  class 
work.  It  is  certainly  more  difficult  to  work  out  the  material 


160  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

yourself,  and  the  time  it  takes  would  usually  be  found  a 
weighty  point  against  any  general  adoption  of  the  scheme. 
For  elementary  work  in  composition,  and  I  would  include 
under  this  head  all  secondary  school  work  in  German,  the 
best  kind  of  composition  book  is  the  one  based,  more  or  less 
directly,  on  a  German  original.  I  look  upon  a  book  made 
up  of  extracts  from  English  authors  with  great  disfavor. 
To  translate  such  selections  into  idiomatically  good  German 
is  beyond  the  powers  of  the  average  teacher,  and  conse- 
quently far  too  much  to  expect  of  the  pupils  themselves. 
For  advanced  study,  or  for  private  study,  and  when  a  care- 
fully written  key  can  be  used  with  which  to  compare  one's 
own  attempt,  no  doubt  books  of  this  kind  can  be  of  great 
use.  It  is  a  question,  however,  whether  the  time  could  not 
be  better  occupied  in  writing  original  compositions  which 
can  later  be  corrected  by,  and  discussed  with,  a  capable 
German. 

Composition  books  of  an  imitative  nature  can  be  of  at  least 
two  kinds.  The  first  kind  consists  of  supplementary  exer- 
cises based  upon  some  well  known  text  the  class  is  likely  to 

read.     In  Latin  instruction  of  the  present  time 
First  Kind.  .  *        , 

much  of  the  prose  composition,  after  the  first 

year,  is  of  this  type.  There  is  no  lack  of  material,  either,  for 
German.  There  are  exercises  based  upon  "Immensee," 
"  Hoher  als  die  Kirche,"  "  Der  Schwiegersohn,"  and  many  of 
the  later  texts  of  various  publishers  contain  work  of  a  similar 
nature.  In  England  the  Siepmann  series  of  German  and 
French  texts 1  make  a  special  point  of  viva  voce  drill,  on 
phrases,  detached  sentences,  and  connected  prose  work  based 

1  Siepmann  Series  of  French  and  German  Texts,  London. 


COMPOSITION.  161 

upon  the  foregoing  text.  It  will  be  noticed  that  I  have  sug- 
gested that  the  teacher  with  the  time  and  the  desire  can  do 
this  himself,  and  often  better,  because  of  his  knowledge  of 
the  immediate  needs  of  his  class. 

The  second  kind  of  composition  book  would  be  one  based 
directly  on  some  original  German  texts.  If  the  text  is  care- 
fully translated  it  seems  to  me  to  offer  the  ideal  composition 
book.  It  should,  of  course,  be  graded  ;  the  se- 
lections should  be  interesting  and  worth  the 
time  spent  upon  them ;  and  they  should  illustrate  different 
phases  of  German  life  and  institutions.  The  translation 
should  be  close  and  yet  not  strained.  This  latter  point  is 
often  violated.  In  order  to  help  the  pupil  to  translate  cor- 
rectly, the  English  translation  runs  too  closely  to  the  German 
line.  It  is  better  to  keep  to  strictly  idiomatic  English  and 
give  the  necessary  help  in  foot-notes.  With  such  a  book,  the 
teacher  has  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  that  the  thought  is  Ger- 
man, and  that  when  the  pupils  have  carefully  done  the  work 
they  have  written  something  which  is  German  in  point  of 
view.  With  texts  taken  directly  from  standard  English  au- 
thors there  must  always  be  present  the  feeling  of  uncertainty. 
Would  a  German,  were  he  writing,  express  himself  in  just  this 
way,  either  in  single  sentences  or  in  the  extract  as  a  whole  ? 
Then  the  point  that  the  extracts  should  increase  the  pupils' 
knowledge  of  German  life  is  worthy  of  consideration.  We 
cannot  emphasize  this  point  too  often  in  every  phase  of  the 
German  course. 


12 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BEADING. 

IT  is  now  widely  recognized  that  reading  shall  form  the 
center  of  instruction  in  a  modern  language  course,  and  that 
all  other  elements  shall  serve  to  further  the  ends  of  reading. 
The  successful  practical  outcome  of  a  secondary  school  course 
is  that  pupils  shall  be  able  to  read  German  readily.  This 
presupposes  that  the  pupils  shall  have  read  a  great  deal,  and 
carefully,  and  that  the  major  part  of  their  time  has  been  spent 
in  reading  the  foreign  language. 

/  The  emphasis  fittingly  laid  upon  reading  and  interpreta- 
tion in  the  class-room  ought  to  make  teachers  careful  in 
selecting  suitable  material.  The  earnest  teacher  instructs  in 

grammar  more  or  less  systematically,  partly  be- 
Mrt  "r^T  °  cause  the  lesson-book  is  methodically  arranged, 

and  partly  because  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary 
if  the  grammatical  house  is  to  be  made  of  anything  more 
than  cardboard.  It  is  far  more  difficult  to  systematize  a 
course  in  reading,  and,  moreover,  there  is  far  too  little 
thought  spent  upon  this  important  part  of  the  work.  As 
long  as  the  pupils  are  reading  something,  what  does  it 
matter  ?  —  is  often  the  general  attitude.  The  difficulties  in 
fixing  a  canon  for  reading  are  exceedingly  great.  It  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  any  one  hard  and  fast  system  will  pre- 
vail. The  personal  choice  of  each  individual  teacher,  con- 
trolled by  class  conditions,  will  always  exercise  considerable 

162 


BEADING.  163 

influence  against  over-systematization.  In  these  few  pages 
an  attempt  will  be  made  to  lay  down  a  few  general  principles 
for  guidance  in  choosing  suitable  reading  texts.  For  conven- 
ience, we  will  consider  the  topic  from  the  following  points  : 

1.  Educative  value. 

2.  Interest. 

3.  Character. 

\  The  reading  should  be  selected  for  its  educative  worth. 
There  should  be  as  much  care  exercised  in  the  choice  of 
German  reading,  as  we  find  exercised  in  the  choice  of  English 
reading  in  good  schools.  The  contents  of  the 
Educative  German  text  should  be  at  least  as  carefully 

YcUuOi 

weighed  as  the  appropriateness  of  the  text  in 
other  particulars.  It  ought  to  be  our  endeavor,  by  their 
reading  and  our  teaching,  to  develop  in  the  pupils  under 
us  as  well  rounded  a  view  of  life  as  possible,  especially  the 
ability  to  grasp  the  characteristic  traits  of  human  nature, 
and  to  enjoy  the  beautiful  in  the  world  without,  j  The  read- 
ing ought  also  to  help  in  bringing  into  harmony  the  thoughts 
and  feelings  of  our  pupils.  We  should,  then,  exercise  care  in  " 
choosing  only  what  is  best  and  noblest.  Every  teacher 
ought  to  read  widely  text-books  suitable  for  pupils  of  high 
school  age.  Only  by  such  study  can  we  hope  to  do  the  best 
for  our  classes.  It  is  highly  important  to  find  out  what  the 
Germans  themselves  regard  as  valuable  "  Jugendliteratur," 
and  thus  correct  our  own  often  too  one-sided  impressions.  In 
Germany,  as  in  America  and  England,  the  market  is  flooded 
with  trashy  stories  of  adventure  that  are  wanting  in  the 
points  I  have  just  mentioned.  And  this  fact  has  led  to  the 
appointment  of  several  commissions  in  Germany  to  look  into 


164  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEKMAN. 

the  matter.  The  report  of  the  Vereinigte  deutsche  Priifungs- 
ausschlisse  fiir  Jugendschriften,1  under  the  title  of  "  Zur  Ju- 
gendschriftenfrage,"  deserves  notice  here.  It  contains  a  few 
essays  on  Storm,  Rosegger,  Karl  May,  and  others,  followed 
by  a  brief  criticism,  very  often  not  favorable,  of  some  sixty 
books  of  various  kinds,  Belletristik,  Spezielle  Jugend- 
schriften, Bilderbiicher,  Geschichte  und  Naturwissenschaften, 
Geographic,  etc.  In  the  third  part  of  the  book  there  fol- 
lows a  list  of  some  230  books,  each  characterized  in  a  sen- 
tence or  two  as  to  kind  of  story,  age  for  which  adapted,  etc. 
Some  of  the  books  given  are  not  originally  German  books. 
American  teachers  will  find  this  report  a  valuable  guide. 
One  is  glad  to  find  in  the  list  many  of  the  favorite  stories 
now  read  in  German  classes  throughout  the  United  States. 

A  text  should  be  selected  to  appeal  to  the  pupils'  interest. 
I  imply  more  by  the  word  interest  than  one  might  at  first 
suppose.  Reading  material  interesting  in  itself  may  be  deadly 
dull  to  the  class,  either  because  it  is  too  mature 
in  thought,  or  because  it  is  too  difficult.  The 
most  attractive  story  causes  children  to  lose  heart  and  interest 
if  the  vocabulary  makes  them  the  slaves  of  the  dictionary. 
It  seems  an  obvious  point  that  teachers  should  choose  works 
of  fitting  difficulty,  and  yet  a  large  number  of  mistakes  arise 
from  the  reading  being  unsuitable  because  it  is  too  hard.  The 
real  trouble  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  teachers  very  often  do  not 
appreciate  the  difficulties  of  a  particular  text.  The  inex- 
perienced teacher,  if  he  exercises  a  choice,  may  be  expected 
to  make  mistakes  on  this  score,  but  even  experienced 
teachers  often  err  in  the  same  way.  The  more  German  one 
i"Zur  Jugendschriftenfrage,"  Leipzig,  1903. 


READING.  165 

knows,  one  might  say,  the  more  easy  it  is  to  miss  the  mark. 
It  is  very  hard  for  a  teacher  thoroughly  at  home  in  the 
language  to  put  himself  in  the  beginner's  place ;  hard 
enough  when  the  student  is  an  adult,  but  harder  still  with  a 
class  of  less  maturity  of  mind.  Judging  from  my  experi- 
ence, the  German-born  teacher  especially  must  be  on  his 
guard  against  selecting  reading  material  above  the  pupils' 
heads  because  of  its  difficulty.  Another  cause  is  either  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  teacher  lacks  broad  enough  knowledge  of 
the  subject  he  is  teaching,  or  that  he  is  too  ambitious  for  his 
pupils  to  get  on.  It  sounds  grand  to  say  "  My  pupils  are 
reading  *  Wilhelm  Tell '  or  *  Maria  Stuart/  "  when  the  time, 
they  tell  you  with  pride,  their  class  has  been  studying  Ger- 
man only  warrants  the  class  reading  easy  stories.  It  was  a 
deplorable  experience,  I  had  once,  of  hearing  a  class  that  had 
hardly  learned  to  walk  alone,  so  to  speak,  translate  from 
"  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans."  Slow,  blunder  after  blunder, 
in  a  language  that  was  only  English  in  vocabulary,  the  sen- 
tences meant  nothing  —  could  mean  nothing  —  because  there 
was  no  thought  behind  them.  The  class  was  not  over  intel- 
ligent, young,  and  in  the  second  year  of  high  school,  I 
believe,  and  in  the  second  year  of  German.  On  another 
occasion  I  witnessed  a  translation  of  part  of  Schiller's  "  Das 
Lied  von  der  Glocke."  It  was,  it  is  true,  at  sight,  but  it 
was  so  far  above  the  pupils  in  difficulty  that  the  teacher  had 
to  translate  by  far  the  greater  part  himself;  even  the  words 
of  ordinary  life,  quite  untechnical,  were  not  recognized.  In 
a  high  school  course  in  German,  even  in  one  extending  over 
four  years,  the  teacher  is  not  expected  to  do  the  work  of 
the  college;  that  is  to  say,  the  secondary  school  pupil  in 


166  THE  TEACHING   OF  GERMAN. 

German  ought  to  spend  the  major  part  of  his  time  in  reading 
as  much  and  as  widely  as  possible  in  easy  German  prose. 
I  have  nothing  to  say  against  making  a  start  in  the  study 
of  the  dramas  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  provided  the  pupils 
are  ready  for  them.  But,  before  the  time  comes  to  read 
"Minna  von  Barnhelm,"  "Iphigenie,"  etc.,  the  pupils 
must,  by  a  great  deal  of  prose  reading,  have  gained  security 
in  vocabulary  and  knowledge  of  German  sentence  structure. 
The  reading  of  such  dramas  should  be  looked  to  as  the  goal, 
and  they  should  be  left  for  a  time  when  the  pupils  can  read 
with  pleasure  and  not  find  it  a  bore.  Pupils  who  have  to 
read  "  Wilhelm  Tell "  in  the  way  that  they  read  their  Virgil 
are  not  ready  for  it.  They  must  serve  a  longer  apprentice- 
ship in  the  study  of  very  slightly  graded  prose,  until  the 
use  of  the  dictionary  is  the  exception,  not  the  rule. 

The  pupils'  age  and  maturity  must  not  be  passed  by  with- 
out a  word.  In  choosing  material  for  pupils  of  high  school 
age  there  is  not  so  much  danger  from  selecting  stories  and 

plays  too  mature  in  thought,  as  from  keeping 
PU  Us  y  °  pupils  too  long  on  Marchen  and  anecdotes 

which  are  more  suitable  in  contents  for  younger 
children  than  one  meets  in  high  school.  Of  course  there  are 
Marchen  which  appeal  strongly  to  all  ages,  and  these  should 
be  chosen,  other  things  being  equal.  I  do  not  think  it  is 
much  to  be  feared  in  a  well  planned  course,  that  the  classics 
usually  read  will  be  begun  before  the  class,  as  a  whole,  is 
mentally  ripe  enough  to  appreciate  them:  In  English 
the  pupils  are  expected  to  read,  and  enjoy  because  they 
appreciate  them,  poems  and  dramatic  works  moving  in  a 
high  plane  of  thought.  The  only  difficulty  I  have  ever  ex- 


READING.  167 

perienced  in  regard  to  this  point  of  the  maturity  of  pupils 
has  been  in  reading  Storm's  "  Immensee."  This  beautifully- 
told  story  has  been  spoiled  for  me,  once  or  twice,  by  reading 
it  with  mixed  classes  who  were  too  young.  They  were  at  an 
age  when  they  found  anything  connected  with  love  an  occa- 
sion for  silly  giggling.  Read  a  year  later,  in  the  last  year  of 
high  school,  as  I  have  always  done  since,  the  classes  seem  to 
have  left  the  "  silly  season  "  behind  them,  and  apparently 
appreciated  the  charm  of  this  masterpiece.  This  experience, 
which  may  be  shared  by  other  teachers,  raised  in  my  mind  at 
the  time  the  question  as  to  how  far  stories  in  which  love  scenes 
play  a  prominent  part  should  be  read  in  high  school  work. 
tThe  conclusion  I  have  at  present  reached  is  that  in  mixed  classes 
of  boys  and  girls,  stories  in  which  love  is  a  controlling  factor 
in  the  plot,  should  not  be  read  until  the  pupils  are  mature 
enough  not  to  be  silly  over  it.Nln  classes  of  boys,  stories  of  the 
love  story  type  are  not  to  be  recommended  as  a  steady  diet. 
In  general  I  think  there  is  too  much  one-sidedness  in  the 
work  read  in  American  schools,  too  many  stories.  If  one 
looks  through  the  lists  of  books  read,  in  various  school  cata- 
logues, and  particularly  if  one  examines  .lists 
Published  °^  tne  vai>i°us  publishing  houses,  I  think  this 
will  be  found  to  be  true.  A  good  story  is  all 
right  in  its  way ;  it  can  be,  or  can  be  made,  of  educative 
value,  but  a  child  needs  more  than  the  story  as  a  diet. 
Reading  material  with  more  backbone  in  it,  something  that 
is  either  naturally  interesting  to  pupils,  or  can  be  made 
interesting  by  the  teacher,  should  be  more  and  more  added 
to  the  lists  of  annotated  texts  of  publishers,  and  find  its 
way  into  the  German  classes  throughout  the  country. 


168  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

Length  is  another  point  to  be  considered  under  the  head 
of  interest.  Even  if  the  reading  is  as  it  should  be  as  regards 
difficulty,  etc.,  the  rate  of  reading  is  extremely  slow  compared 

with   the   rate  in   the   mother-tongue.       The 
Length. 

brightest,  cleverest  story,  naturally  meant  to  be 

read  in  the  half  hour  or  hour,  must  lose  much  of  its  charm 
if  spread  over  a  half  term  or  term.  The  teacher  cannot 
altogether  avoid  this  result,  but  he  can  do  a  great  deal 
towards  keeping  up  interest  by^choosing  reading  of  suitable 
length,  varying  with  the  stage  of  instruction^  The  beginner, 
who  can  scarcely  crawl  along,  surely  ought  not  to  be  dis- 
heartened by  starting  on  a  book  only  complete  in  thirty  or 
forty  pages.  For  him  some  selection  complete  in  itself,  from 
one  to  two  pages  in  length,  I  regard  as  the  right  measure ; 
something  that  will  only  take  him  a  day  or  two  to  read. 
With  pupils  under  high  school  age  work  of  even  less  extent 
might  be  desirable  for  variety's  sake.  With  older  pupils, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  easy  to  err  on  the  side  of  too  short 
selections,  and  for  the  lessons,  thereby,  to  lack  unity.  The 
sketches  in  Andersen's  "Bilderbuch  ohne  Bilder"  seem, 
from  point  of  length,  to  be  well  suited  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  early  reading  in  German.  Later,  when  the  pupils 
read  with  greater  ease  and  freedom,  the  selections  will  also 
naturally  increase  in  length.  Thirty,  possibly  forty,  pages, 
ought  to  be  the  maximum  length  of  stories  for  pupils  in  the 
first  year  of  German,  beginning  in  the  third  year  of  high 
school.  I  should  keep  the  selections  shorter  still  for 
classes  beginning  German  in  the  first  or  second  year  of  the 
high  school  course.  Novelletten,  or  selections  of  this  length, 
serve  to  keep  interest  from  flagging,  because  of  the  oppor- 


HEADING.  169 

tunity  the  teacher  has  to  add  variety  of  subject.  Even  in 
later  stages  of  the  course  I  think  it  is  advisable  to  keep  to 
stories,  or  whatever  the  work  chosen  may  be,  under  150, 
preferably  100,  pages  in  length. 

As  regards  variety,  as  a  factor  in  the  choice  of  texts,  de- 
scription, narrative,  and  dialogue,  will  all  receive  due  atten- 
tion. Simple  descriptions  of  things,  or  phenomena  already 

known  to  the  pupils,  afford  an  easy  way  of 

.    .  _     _  ___  -  _ 

gaining    a   concrete   vocabulary.     .Personally, 

however,  I  should  not  advise  much  description  alone  for 
pupils  of  high  school  age.  The  selections  in  Sweet's  "  Ele- 
mentarbuch " l  of  the  earth,  sea,  sun,  seasons,  etc.,  I  am 
certain  the  pupils  would  find  too  dry,  too  much  like  a  cata- 
logue. Later,  after  the  pupils  can  read  German  with  fluency, 
and  the  selection  can  offer  something  new  —  something  in- 
teresting about  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars,  I  willingly  admit 
they  have  a  right  to  a  place.  But  I  wish  the  reading  to  be 
a  pleasure,  something  worth  reading,  still  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  (pupils  will  look  on  the  exercise  in  the  light  of  a 
pleasant  relief  from  grammar  in  its  dullest  form?]  For  this 
purpose  the  simple  story  affords  the  best  opportunity  for 
successful  choice  in  the  early  stages  of  the  language,  (in  the 
good  story,  the  three  main  classes  I  have  given  above  may 
be  represented.  And  some  stories  will  be  intentionally  selected 
because  of  the  predominance  of  one  or  more  of  the  main 
points,  description,  narration,  or  conversation. 

In  the  first  stage  of  reading,  a  good  anecdote  is  commend-  *" 
able.     There  is  danger,  of  course,  that  the  anecdote  may  be 
too  brief.     Many  of  the  older  ones  are  so  carefully  con- 

1 "  Elementarbuch  des  gesprochenen  Englisch,"  Sweet,  Oxford,  1891. 


170  THE  TEACHING   OF  GERMAN. 

structed  that  almost  every  word  is  important  for  the  sense. 
>  As  a  rule,  it  seems  better   to  choose   anecdotes  that   are 

told  in  some  breadth  and  naturalness  for  read- 
The  Anecdote. 

ing.     The  shorter  ones  may,  if  necessary,  serve 

as  the  basis  for  conversation  and  composition,  enlarging  upon 
the  contents  wherever  desirable. 

No  course  is  complete  without  the  study  of  a  short  play. 
The  language  is,  of  course,  more  idiomatic,  and  hence  pre- 
sents difficulties.     How  many,  will  depend  upon  the  em- 
phasis laid  upon  the  spoken  language  in  the 
plae  German  course.     The  difficulties  are,  however, 

easily  overcome  by  the  interest  the  short  play 
has  for  pupils.  A  play  is  excellent  practice  in  every  way, 
and  the  work  of  the  class  is  strengthened  if  scenes,  or  a 
whole  play,  can  be  given  in  the  class-room,  or,  more  elab- 
orately, before  the  school. 

The  study  of  German  poetry  in  a  secondary  school  course 
should  be  regarded  more  as  supplementary  work  than  other- 
wise. '/  Now  and  then  a  poem  may  be  read  and  learned,  and 
may  act  as  a  pleasant  change  from  the  prose 
reading.  In  a  longer  course  ballads  and  selec- 
tions from  longer  poetical  works  will  find  a  fitting  place. 
How  much  poetry  is  to  be  read  will,  it  seems  to  me,  depend 
upon  the  interest  the  teacher  has  in  this  form  of  reading,  and 
his  ability  to  make  it  interesting  to  his  class.  His  ability  to 
make  the  poems  interesting  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized. It  is  absurd  to  read  poem  after  poem  without  com- 
ment, and  then  require  a  number  of  them  to  be  rattled  off 
by  heart  with  no  further  ulterior  motive  than  to  see  that  the 
whole  class  has  learned  the  poems,  and  to  correct  the  more 


HEADING.  171 

glaring  errors  in  pronunciation.  If  a  poem  is  worth  reading 
at  all  it  is  worth  studying  from  the  literary  side  as  well. 
And  this  can  only  be  done  satisfactorily  at  a  time  when  the 
class  is  at  home  in  the  language.  The  study  of  poetry 
should  be  left  until  the  language  side  offers  minor  difficul- 
ties, and  the  pupils  are  free  to  turn  their  attention  to  the 
thought.  If  the  poem  must  go  through  the  process  of  trans- 
lation the  pupils  are  not  ready  for  it.  Nothing  is  better  cal- 
culated to  destroy  all  love  of  German  poetry  than  the  daily 
translation  of  poems  into  the  most  prosaic  prose. 

The  German  teachers  of  modern  languages  lay  especial 
emphasis  upon  reading  of  a  historical  or  biographical  nature, 
as  best  calculated  to  introduce  their  pupils  to  the  study  of 

the  English  or  French  people.     In  the  United 
History. 

States  the  story  occupies  the  most  prominent 

place  in  the  reading  course.  In  Germany  the  story  is  gain- 
ing ground.  The  selection  of  too  much  historical  material 
was  found  to  be  one-sided,  but,  in  America,  we  are  more  one- 
sided still.  Certainly  stiffer  reading  of  historical  prose  ought 
somehow  to  occupy  a  more  prominent  position  than  it  does  at 
present.*  A  few  of  the  reasons  why  reading  of  this  character 
has  not  been  introduced  in  this  country  are  not  hard  to  fathom. 
One  of  the  chief  reasons,  if  not  the  chief,  is  due  to  the  polit-  1 
ical  history  of  the  United  States.  Its  geographical  position 
is  also  important  to  consider.  The  American  boy  studies 
English  history  almost  as  a  matter  of  course.  England  is  our 
mother-country,  and  our  history  is  closely  connected  with  it 
at  many  points.  We  speak  the  same  language,  and  English 
literature  is  our  literature.  With  the  nations  of  continental 
history  it  is  different.  Only  now  and  then  in  the  past  has 


172  THE  TEACHING  OP  GERMAN. 

our  country  been  intimately  associated  with  France,  Ger- 
many, etc.  To  be  sure  our  population  has  come  from  the 
Continent,  to  a  large  extent,  but  the  knowledge  of  foreign 
life  it  has  brought  is  not  great.  To  the  Anglo-Saxon  boy, 
at  least,  Germany  and  France  lie  afar  off,  and  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  are  remoter  still.  In  school  an  attempt 
is  made  to  teach  something  about  them,  but  usually  only  a 
general  knowledge  is  gained.  The  situation  in  Germany  is 
different.  Germany's  relations  with  the  countries  around 
her,  geographically,  historically,  politically,  commercially, 
and  in  her  literature,  all  favor  the  study  of  the  history  of  the 
country  whose  language  the  German  boy  is  learning. 

Co-education  in  high  school  work  undoubtedly  is  an  influ- 
ence favoring  the  choice  of  a  story  rather  than  historical 
prose.  This  situation  is  combined  with  another  fact,  which 
we  must  surely  admit,  namely  that  the  course 
8  of  the  German  higher  schools  is  more  exact- 
ing^ the  work  done  and  the  way  it  is  done 
is  less  open  to  criticism  on  the  score  of  superficiality,  than 
the  work  in  the  rank  and  file  of  schools  in  this  country. 
There  is  a  tradition  for  thoroughness  and  soundness  of  work 
in  Germany  which  we  have  not  yet  attained.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising then  to  find  the  predominant  position  which  historical 
prose  holds  in  the  reading  in  the  French  and  English  courses. 
Another  element  which  must  be  mentioned  in  this  connection 
is  the  apparent  difficulty  in  finding  German  historical  prose 
suitable  for  elementary  work:;  There  is  often  much  to  be  said 
against  the  language,  the  dryness,  the  minuteness  of  detail,  of 
German  historical  writers.  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  if 
we  are  really  anxious  that  our  pupils  should  learn  something 


READING.  173 

of  the  history  and  the  historical  characters  of  the  German 
people,  the  difficulties  can  be  satisfactorily  met.  But  I  do 
not  think  it  would  be  wise  to  advocate  giving  historical  prose 
the  position  it  occupies  in  the  German  modern  language 
course.  Still,  there  are  many  interesting  chapters  in  the 
development  of  the  various  German  peoples  into  a  world 
power  under  one  head,  and  some  of  them  ought  to  find  a 
place  in  a  high  school  course.  A  beginning  might  be 
made  with  biography,  upon  which  the  teacher  could  en- 
large wherever  expedient.  Though  not  history,  the  "  Nibe- 
lungeu  Lied "  in  some  form  or  other  could  be  used,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  teacher  made  extremely  interesting 
and  profitable.  Its  introduction  is  more  easily  brought 
about  now  that  the  Wagner  operas  have  done  so  much  to 
make  the  story  popular.  I  should  imagine  the  majority  of 
high  school  pupils,  especially  those  who  study  music,  are  not 
ignorant  of  Wagner. 

Are  classes  in  high  school  to  be  expected  to  read  arti- 
cles or  works  of  a  technical  character,  as  a  preparation  for 
future  study  ?  Many  boys,  for  example,  will  later  become 

engineers,  architects,  chemists,  physicists,  and 
works '  *n  a  scno°l  where  the  elective  system  is  in  force, 

a  kind  of  specialization  already  begins  during 
the  high  school  years.  Without  going  deeply  into  the  sub- 
ject, it  seems  to  me  from  my  own  experience  that  the  boy 
with  strong  inclinations  towards  mechanics  and  the  sci- 
ences is  the  very  one  who  needs,  in  high  school,  to  have 
the  humanistic  studies  emphasized  rather  than  diminished. 
Specialization  will  come  soon  enough  in  the  College  or  Scien- 
tific School.  Anyway,  it  seems  a  better  preparation  to  give 


174  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

as  thorough  a  course  in  general  reading  of  German  as  pos- 
sible. With  the  results  of  this  as  a  foundation,  the  special 
vocabulary  necessary  can  be  easily  acquired.  I  do  not,  of 
course,  mean  to  keep  out  selections  of  general  interest,  deal- 
ing with  science,  if  there  is  time.  Extracts  from  the  books 
of  some  German  writers  corresponding  to  Agnes  Giberne  and 
Arabella  Buckley,  might  easily  find  a  place  in  a  general  course 
in  German. 

The  contents  should  be  typically  German  in  character. 
As  soon  as  possible,  real  German,  written  by  Germans, 
should  be  introduced,  and  chosen  expressly  to  introduce  the 

pupils  to  various  sides  of  German  life  and  char- 
Character.  Till 
acter.      Ihis    can   either  be  accomplished   by 

direct  descriptions  or,  perhaps  better,  by  stories,  poems,  and 
sketches  of  a  historical  nature  which  move  in  a  German 
atmosphere.  "  The  subject  of  the  text  ought  to  be  in  har- 
mony with  the  language  it  is  intended  to  teach,  both  as 
regards  place  and  time."  That  this  is  the  right  view  to 
take,  is  now  universally  conceded.  Our  pupils  are  not 
simply  to  study  the  German  language,  they  are,  indirectly  at 
least,  to  learn  of  Germans,  German  life,  customs,  ideals. 
No  better  way  can  be  found  than  by  choosing  stories  which 
deal  with  modern  German  life,  and  historical  selections 
that  deal  with  important  events  in  the  life  of  the  German 
people. 

In  German  schools  a  great  deal  of  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
instruction  in  the  so-called  "  Realien  "  in  modern  language 
work.  Since  the  time  when  Klinghardt  pointed  out  at  the 
first  Neuphilologentag  at  Hanover  in  1886,  that  little  had 
yet  been  done  towards  teaching  "  Realien,"  a  great  deal  of 


READING.  175 

progress  has  been  made.  Many  books  have  been  written  for 
the  use  of  classes,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  work  is 
being  given  is  well  illustrated  by  Walter  in  "  Englisch  nach 
dem  Frankfurter  Reformplan,"  and  Klinghardt  in  "  Drei 
weitere  Jahre  Erfahrungen."  l  Hausknecht's  books,  "  The 
English  Student,  Lehrbuch  zur  Einfuhrung  in  die  Englische 
Sprache  und  Landeskunde,"  and  the  "  English  Reader  "  are 
also  important.  A  glance  at  the  titles  of  the  series  of 
French  and  English  texts  under  the  editorship  of  Bahlsen 
and  Hengesbach,  also  gives  an  idea  of  the  direction  the 
movement  has  taken.*  Our  conditions  do  not  warrant  our 
adopting  any  such  elaborate  scheme  of  instruction  in  "  Real- 
ien  "  of  a  foreign  people  and  country.  The  only  thing  that 
I  advise  is  that  the  material  shall  be  thoroughly  German  in 
contents  and  feeling. 

Having  spoken  of  the  inner  form  and  content  of  the  read- 
ing, we  are  now  ready  to  say  a  word  or  two  with  regard  to 
the  outer  form.  In  other  words,  a  few  words  about  the 
reader,  as  against  the  single  text,  especially  in 
^e  ear^er  stages  of  the  language.  In  the 
very  beginning  of  the  course  a  lesson  book  or 
grammar  containing  suitable  material  for  reading  is  undoubt- 
edly the  best  thing.  The  selections  should  not  be  loosely 
put  into  the  book,  simply  to  be  read,  but,  rather,  the  whole 
of  the  grammatical,  conversational,  and  composition  work 
should  be  built  up  around  it.  The  selections  should  form, 
as  I  said  before,  the  center.  An  excellent  example  of  what 

1  "Drei  weitere  Jahre  Erfahrungen,"  Klinghardt,  Marburg,  1892. 

2  "  Schulbibliothek  franzosischer  und  englischer  Prosaschriften  aus  der 
neueren   Zeit.     Mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung   der  Forderungen  der 
neuen  Lehrplane,"  L.  Bahlsen  &  J.  Hengesbach,  Berlin. 


176  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

I  mean,  in  this  one  particular,  is  Thomas's  "  German  Gram- 
mar." Soon,  especially  with  pupils  beginning  late  in  the  high 
school  course,  the  selection  of  reader  or  text  presents  itself. 
The  work  in  the  lesson  book  progresses  slowly,  the  older 
pupils  soon  need  outside  practice  in  reading.  The  reading 
in  the  lesson  book  is  what  the  Germans  call  "  statarisch," 
the  new  reading  will  be  "  cursorisch  "  in  treatment.  I  have 
come  to  think  that  the  choice  of  the  two  forms,  reader  or 
single  text,  is  almost  wholly  a  personal  one.  It  depends 
upon  whether  one  is  willing  to  take  the  selections  of  others, 
or  prefers  to  make  one's  own.  I  have  never  found  a  reader 
that  entirely  suited  me,  for  there  seemed  always  something  to 
object  to,  as  well  as  something  of  which  to  approve,  in  every 
one.  It  would  be  a  more  than  herculean  task  to  please  every 
one  in  such  a  potpourri  as  a  reader  must  necessarily  be.  It 
is  easy  to  see  from  this  that  I  prefer  to  search  for  suitable 
material  myself.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  to  be 
said  in  favor  of  the  reading  book,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
there  are  many  who  do  not  like  the  idea.  [A  good  reader  is 
bound  to  contain  a  large  amount  of  matter  of  varied  interest,  I/ 
is  graded  in  point  of  difficulty  (unfortunately  usually  too 
rapidly  for  younger  pupils),  and  also  in  length.  Another 
strong  claim  is  that,  as  a  rule,  they  are  more  carefully 
edited.  As  they  are  intended  for  beginners,  the  notes  are 
full  (too  full  at  times)  and  the  vocabulary  more  complete  1 
than  in  the  simple  text. 

No  reader  that  exists  in  America  meets  the  requirements 
I  set,  nor  is  adapted  to  the  use  I  wish  to  make  of  it.  Some 
may  object  to  the  word  "  reader  "  as  applied  to  such  a  book. 
After  the  lesson  book  has  been  intensively  studied  and  the 


HEADING.  177 

reading  material  and  the  exercises  based  on  the  reading  have 
been  bred  into  the  blood,- 1  need  a  book,  reader  in  form, 
with  which  to  continue.    JThe  selections  should 
The  i  ea  ^  Q^  varje(j  length,  difficulty,  style,  and  con- 

tents. They  should  be  chosen,  in  addition  to 
their  educative  value,  to  give  as  complete  a  knowledge  of 
Germany  and  the  Germans  as  possible.  The  selections 
should  also  be  chosen  with  the  idea  of  forming  excellent 
material,  both  in  form  and  contents,  for  exercises  in  conver- 
sation and  composition.  Such  a  collection  would  form  the 
basis  for  an  intensive  study  of  reading,  as  contrasted  with 
the  stories  and  other  work  which  would  afford  parallel,  rapid 
reading,  sit  should  occupy  an  intermediate  position  between 
grammar  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  reading  of  authors  on  the 
other.''  It  should  be  of  such  a  character  and  of  such  dimen- 
sions that  it  can,  like  the  grammar,  be  used  throughout  the 
whole  course,  supplementing  though  not  supplanting  the 
reading  of  authors.  In  this  connection  Hausknecht's  books 
are  worthy  of  careful  examination.  The  reader  will,  natur- 
ally, contain  a  word  list. 

Shall  notes  be  in  German,  or  English?     An  answer  to 
this  question  depends  upon  one's  position  as  regards  the 
question  of  translation  in  general.     In  Germany  there  are  a 
number  of  excellent  teachers  who  believe  in  no 
tbe^ext  translation,  or  scarcely  any.     Interpretation, 

wherever  necessary,  is  done  through  the 
medium  of  the  language  the  class  is  studying.  We  should 
naturally  expect  then  that  edited  texts  would  contain  explan- 
ations, linguistic  and  otherwise,  in  the  same  language.  The 
question  of  the  study  of  the  text  will  be  discussed  in  the  next 
13 


178  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

chapter.  Shall  the  text  read  in  connection  with  the  reader  or 
after  it,  also  be  edited  with  notes  and  vocabulary,  or  is  it  bet- 
ter at  this  stage  of  the  course  to  leave  out  the  special  vocabu- 
lary, and  make  the  pupils  consult  the  German  dictionary  ?  A 
text  certainly  needs  to  be  provided  with  the  necessary  notes, 
adapted  to  the  age  and  the  time  when  the  text  is  intended 
to  be  read.  The  notes  should  be  concise,  to  the  point,  with- 
out taking  too  much  for  granted,  or  treating  the  high  school 
pupil  as  a  child  of  six  or  seven  as  regards  general  informa- 
tion. vJTheir  great  use  is  to  help  pupils  over  difficult  places, 
to  explain  the  uncommon  and  idiomatic  in  an  otherwise 
appropriate  text.)  Anything  else  is  extraneous  matter,  and 
only  serves  as  a  temptation  to  the  teacher  to  make  too  much 
of  the  explanations.  Some  teachers  seem  to  think  that  the 
notes  must  be  learned  above  all  other  things.  Without 
neglecting  what  is  necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the 
text,  both  from  the  linguistic  and  the  interpretive  standpoint, 
the  teacher  will  find,  in  general,  that  the  pupils  will  have 
enough  to  do  with  mastering  the  common,  without  torment- 
ing them  with  the  rare  and  often  unimportant. 

As  regards  a  special  vocabulary,  there  are  at  least  two 
points  in  favor  of  its  use.  Firstly,  it  saves  time.  This  is 
an  obvious  fact  and  there  is  no  need  to  dwell  upon  it. 

Secondly,  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the 
T&e  special  pUpjls  to  acquire  a  firmer,  clearer  grasp  of 

vocabulary.  Instead  of  searching,  in  his  inex- 
perience, among  a  number  of  meanings  and  being  finally 
uncertain  which  is  the  right  one,  he  finds  in  the  vocabulary 
only  the  appropriate  meaning,  or  perhaps  the  usual  meaning 
of  the  word  followed,  if  necessary,  by  the  suitable  translation 


BEADING.  179 

of  the  German  word  or  phrase.  The  student  obtains  a 
firmer,  clearer  grasp  because  the  German  word  is  associated 
with  one  or  two  meanings  only.  For  though  one  finally 
chooses  from  the  long  list  of  meanings  in  the  dictionary  the 
one  apparently  suitable,  the  beginner's  inexperience  in  the 
language  often  causes  him  to  be  uncertain  that  he  has  selected 
the  right  meaning.  By  reading  the  texts  of  different  auth- 
ors with  the  aid  of  the  special  vocabulary,  the  common 
vocabulary  not  only^  in  creases  in  size,  but  also  each  word  in 
it  gradually  takes  on  a  richer  and  fuller  significance.  The 
same  words  appear  in  different  contexts,  and  the  different 
authors  that  the  pupils  read  use  them  often  with  slightly 
different  shades  of  meaning.  Thus  in  time  a  sound  vocabu- 
lary is  built  up,  and  the  special  vocabulary  is  one  of  the  aids 
that  can  be  brought  to  bear  in  accomplishing  this  end. 
Later,  however,  the  dictionary  should  take  its  place.  Aided 
by  his  experience  in  the  language,  and  sure  of  the  common 
meanings  of  a  large  stock  of  words,  the  pupil  is  enabled  by 
the  use  of  the  dictionary  to  gather  together  the  different 
meanings  of  words,  and  the  study  of  the  vocabulary  is 
thereby  placed  upon  a  higher  plane.  The  objection  that  the 
special  vocabulary  makes  the  work  too  easy  for  the  pupil,  I 
hardly  think  a  valid  one.  The  pupil  still  has  to  search  for 
unknown  words  in  the  back  of  the  book,  and  this  alone 
requires  thought  and  care.  Anyway,  the  pupils  will  have 
enough  to  do  in  the  elementary  work  after  the  words  have 
been  looked  up,  to  satisfy  the  careful  teacher. 

We  are  now  in  a  position,  after  dealing  with  the  general 
subject  of  reading,  to  plan  out  a  course  in  it  as  far  as  possible 
in  keeping  with  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  foregoing 


180  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

pages.     The  difficulties  to  overcome  are  not  few.     The  work 
done  in  the  various  high  schools  and  academies  is  so  differ- 
ent in   grade  and    nature,  some   giving   four 
a  course  years  to  the  study,  others  three,  two,  and  one. 

The  hours  a  week  vary  also  with  different 
institutions.  It  is  obvious  that  the  kind  of  reading,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  manner  of  its  study,  that  is  suitable  for  high 
school  pupils  beginning  German  in  the  third  year,  would  be 
unsuitable  for  younger  pupils  of  the  first  year.  Previous 
study  of  Latin  also  exerts  an  influence  on  the  type  of  work 
that  can  be  attempted.  We  shall  have  to  plan  a  course 
possessing  considerable  freedom  in  its  organization.  We 
shall  also  do  best  by  suggesting  a  good  deal  of  material  to 
choose  from,  with  the  hope  that  "  wer  vieles  bringt,  wird 
manchem  etwas  bringen." 

The  ideal  lesson-book  for  high  school  work  beginning 
with  the  entering  class,  as  I  have  already  said,  ought  to  contain 
suitable  and  ample  material  for  the  year's  reading  organically  , 

connected  with  the  requisite  grammatical  work. 
First  Year.  , 

In  addition  to  the  obvious  requirements  due  to 

grading,  etc.,  the  subject-matter  should  offer  a  glimpse  of 
something  German.  The  selections  in  the  Becker  grammar l 
or  the  series  of  letters  in  the  Thomas  grammar 2  are  among 
the  best  examples  I  know  viewed  from  this  last  standpoint. 
But  if  the  text-book  chosen  does  not  contain  sufficient  read- 
ing material,  I  suggest  the  following  choice  instead  of  the 
reader,  which,  however,  some  teachers  after  all  prefer.  Such 
a  book  as  "  Gliick  auf  "  by  Clara  Wenkebach  and  Margarethe 

1  Chicago,  Scott  Foresman. 

2  New  York,  Holt. 


READING.  181 

Miiller  or  judicious  selections  from  the  very  usable  book 
"  Studien  und  Plaudereien  "  by  Stern  could  be  early  intro- 
duced to  supplement  the  text  of  the  lesson-book.  If  proper 
facilities  and  time  are  at  the  teacher's  disposal  I  should  ad- 
vise compiling  a  number  of  popular  legends,  myths,  stories 
of  cities  and  of  historical  characters.  The  numerous  school 
readers  used  in  Germany  offer  a  wealth  of  material  from 
which  to  choose.  Later  in  the  year  as  occasion  demands,  some 
short  stories  like  Leander's  "  Traumereien  "  furnish  excellent 
material.  Additional  stories  for  first  year :  "  Es  war 
Einmal,"  stories  by  Baumbach  and  Wildenbruch,3  "  Kleine 
Geschichten,"  Volkmann,  "  Im  Zwielicht,"  Baumbach. 

Among  the  easier  selections  suitable  for  the  second  year  I 
should  place  Gerstacker's  "Germelshausen."  Hauff  is  an  ex- 
cellent story-teller  and  his  "  Der  Zwergnase  "  is  appropriate 

at  this  stage  and  can  be  made  more  interesting 
Second  Year. 

still  to  the  class  if  a  well  illustrated  edition 

like  that  of  Walter  Tiemann,2  is  in  the  teacher's  pos- 
session. In  fact  the  use  of  artistically  illustrated,  often 
inexpensive,  editions  in  connection  with  the  class-work  seems 
to  be  highly  desirable.  At  least  one  of  Riehl's  "  Novellen  " 
such  as  "Burg  Neideck,"  "Der  Fluch  der  Schonheit"  and 
others  that  have  been  edited  ought  to  find  a  place  on  the 
list  of  the  second  year,  to  be  read  near  the  end  or  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  year.  For  another  truly  German  story 
I  suggest  "  Das  edle  Blut  "  by  Wildenbruch.  Short,  easy, 
modern,  and  at  the  same  time  suitable  plays  for  schools  are 
difficult  to  find.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  the  ones 

1  Am.  Bk.  Co. 

2  Seeinann,  Leipzig. 


182  THE   TEACHING   OF    GERMAN. 

usually  read,  such  as  "  Eigensinn  "  and  "  Der  Prozess,"  by 
Benedix,  "  Einer  muss  heiraten  !  "  by  Wilhelmi,  and  others 
of  similar  calibre.     They  are  unsatisfactory,  but  I  cannot 
suggest  anything  better.     "  Unter  vier  Augen,"  by  Fulda, 
I  fear  is  too  grown  up  for  the  younger  high  school  pupils. 
"  Immensee,"  and  the  perhaps  equally  good  "  Pole  Poppen- 
spaler  "  by  Storm  from  the  point  of  view  of  difficulty,  find  a 
place  in  the  second  year  texts.     The  first  named  has  long 
been  a  favorite  with  teachers,  and  justly  so  from  their  mature 
standpoint.     Is  it  a  favorite  with  young  pupils  of  the  high 
school  ?     I  fear  that  they  do  not  know  enough  about  the 
German  language,  enough  about  the  Germans,  nor  are  they 
mature  enough  to  appreciate  the  delicacy  with  which  the 
simple  story  is  told.     It  is  not  until  later  in  life  that  the 
American  boy  or  girl  likes  Storm,  and  even  then  some  will  not 
understand.     I  should  prefer,  then,  to  keep  these  stories  for 
as  late  in  the  course  as  possible,  and  then  assign  them  either 
for  private  reading  in  the  fourth  year,  or  take  them  up  in 
class,  reading  them  quickly  —  much  as  one  reads  an  English 
story.     They   might   serve   as   sight   reading,   though    not 
necessarily  to  be  translated,  and  the  literary  qualities  could 
be  briefly  discussed.     Petersen's  "  Prinzessin  Use "  is  an- 
other bit  of  prose-poetry  that  might  well  be  put  in  the  same 
class.     The  writings  of  Peter  Rosegger  also  furnish  whole- 
some  reading,  and    are   an    excellent   contrast   to   Storm's 
stories.     A  number  of  his  short  stories  have  already  been 
edited  for  school  use,  and  the  collection  in  three  parts  under 
the  title  "  Als  ich  noch  der  Waldbauernbub  war  "  issued  by 
the  Hamburger  Priifungsausschuss  fur  Jugendschriften  con- 
tains a  very  good  selection.     His  work  too  might  serve  for 


READING.  183 

rapid  reading  in  the  fourth  year.  It  is  good  practice  to 
have  something  on  hand  from  which  to  read  to  the  class  an 
odd  five  minutes  now  and  then.  Some  of  the  pranks  of  Till 
Eulenspiegel  related  in  an  easy  modern  form  I  suggest  for 
use  in  the  second  year.  There  is  an  edition  of  moderate 
price  illustrated  by  the  artist  of  Hauff's  "  Der  Zwergnase  " 
mentioned  above.  For  the  third  year  the  teacher  could 
dip  here  and  there  into  a  modern  version  of  Grimmels- 
hausen's  "  Simplicius  Simplicissimus."  Further  material  for 
this  year  :  "  Krambambuli,"  Ebner-Eschenbach ;  "  Fritz 
auf  Ferien,"  Arnold;  "Inkognito,"  Groller,  and  "Cand. 
phil.  Lauschmann,"  Albersdorf.1 

For  class  reading  in  the  third  year  I  should  put  early 
Baumbach's  "Der  Schwiegersohn."  It  is  by  no  means  a 
story  of  very  high  merit,  but  it  is  thoroughly  German  in 

atmosphere,  is  bright,  and  contains  enough  inci- 
Third  Year. 

dent  to  appeal  to  the  average  class.     Seidel  s 

"  Leberecht  Hiihnchen  "  is  likewise  German  in  spirit,  though 
possibly  the  hero  is  too  odd  a  character  to  appeal  to  a  class 
of  American  pupils  as  highly  as  he  deserves.  At  any  rate, 
it  needs  careful  study  of  the  language  and  a  good  teacher  to 
interpret  such  a  unique,  though  true,  type  of  personality.  The 
most  literary  writer  of  the  soldier's  life  during  the  war  of 
'70-' 71  is  Detlev  von  Liliencron.  His  sketches  are  intensely 
vivid  and  dramatic,  and  there  is  withal  such  a  spirit  of 
truthfulness  and  earnestness  about  his  pictures  of  the  war 
that  I  think  it  well  to  place  him  on  the  list.  Classes  of 
boys,  I  should  think,  would  read  his  "  Kriegsnovellen  "  with 
deep  interest.  I  select  Kleist's  "Michael  Kohlhaas"  for 
1  Am.  Bk.  Co. 


184  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

the  stiffer  reading  in  the  third  year.  It  is  a  powerful  his- 
torical story,  so  thoroughly  German  to  the  core  that  it  ought 
to  find  many  readers  in  the  upper  classes  of  high  school  and 
college.  For  those  who  do  not  object  to  a  "  Bearbeitung  " 
of  such  a  classic,  the  illustrated  one  by  Chr.  Hamann,  as 
published  by  Grote  of  Berlin,  seems  exceedingly  well  done. 
The  narrative  has  been  divided  into  chapters,  and  enlivened 
considerably  by  the  frequent  change  of  conversation  from  the 
indirect  discourse  of  the  original  to  the  direct.  Some  of  the 
peculiarities  of  Kleist's  prose  style  have  also  been  modernized. 
One  of  Freytag's  "  Bilder,"  for  example  "  Aus  dem  Staate 
Friedrichs  des  Grossen,"  might  furnish  an  alternative  for 
serious  reading  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  —  perhaps  the 
fourth  year  would  be  a  more  suitable  place.  Excellent  as 
Freytag's  "  Bilder "  are,  I  am  doubtful  as  to  their  appro- 
priateness for  high  school  reading  at  all,  except  perhaps  selec- 
tions from  them.  They  are  meant  for  study,  and  not  for 
simple  reading.  Moreover,  to  get  much  benefit  out  of  the 
"  Bilder  "  implies  a  far  greater  knowledge  of  German  civili- 
zation than  the  American  boy  or  girl  possesses.  Even  the 
German  boy  of  like  age  has  no  easy  task  to  read  them  appre- 
ciatively. For  appropriate  plays  there  is  the  deservedly 
popular  "  Die  Journalisten  "  by  Freytag.  Schiller's  "  Wil- 
helm  Tell "  needs  only  to  be  mentioned.  Further  material 
for  this  year:  "  Irrfahrten,"  by  Gerstacker,  "Kleider 
machen  Leute,"  by  Keller. 

The  reading  of  the  fourth  year  could  be  selected  from 
portions  of  Scheffel's  "  Ekkehard,"  or  Freytag's  "  Soil  und 
Haben,"  or  possibly  Sudermann's  "  Frau  Sorge."  If  abbre- 
viated texts  are  to  be  used  in  high  school  the  suggestion 


BEADING.  185 

made  by  Dr.  Bahlsen  in  the  Teachers  College  Record  for 
May,  1903,  of  including  some  of  Fontane's  writings  is  an 

excellent  one.     "  Vor  dem  Sturm"  has  already 
Fourth  Year.  ,    .        .        „.  ~  , 

appeared   in   the   oiepmann   German   series. 

Personally  I  dislike  cutting  down  novels  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  is  necessary  for  secondary  work.  Would  it  not  be 
better  on  the  whole  to  select  a  number  of  shorter  complete 
stories,  even  though  they  were  easy  reading  for  the  class  ? 
For  mature  classes  a  story  like  "Anfang  und  Ende,"  by 
Heyse,  or  the  works  of  Storm  given  above  are  appropriate. 
To  these  may  be  added  his  "  In  St.  Jiirgen,"  Ebner-Eschen- 
bach's  "  Die  Freiherren  von  Gemperlein,"  Chamisso's  "  Peter 
Schlemihl,"  Fouque's  "  Undine,"  Heine's  "  Die  Harzreise." 
For  more  serious  prose  reading,  portions  of  Goethe's  "  Dich- 
tung  und  Wahrheit,"  for  example,  the  Sesenheim  period,  as 
suggested  by  the  committee  of  twelve.  For  the  Goethe  play 
I  should  select  "  Iphigenie,"  in  spite  of  its  Greek  subject. 
Schiller's  "  Wallenstein's  Lager  "  and  "  Wallenstein's  Tod  " 
could  be  read  in  connection  with  appropriate  portions  of  the 
"  Geschichte  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges." 

Thus  far  I  have  not  included  the  reading  of  poetry.     I 
should  put  off  any  definite  study  of  poetry  until  the  third 
year  of  a  four  years'  course.     Then  an  anthology  of  suit- 
able lyrics,  ballads,  etc.,  could  form  one  book 
Poetry. 

of  the  year.  It  is  not  necessary  to  specify 
here  the  several  collections  that  have  been  edited.  In 
the  fourth  year  the  pupils  could  take  either  "  Das  Lied 
von  der  Glocke"  or  "Hermann  und  Dorothea"  for  seri- 
ous study. 
1  Macmillan. 


186  THE  TEACHING  OF   GEKMAN. 

I  have  already  suggested  that  there  should  be  supple- 
mentary reading  chosen  to  give  as  vivid  a  picture  of  German 
life  as  our  limited  time  and  opportunities  will  admit,  and 

which  will  also  serve  as  a  basis  for  much  of 
Reallen.  .  . 

the  work  in  conversation.     In  addition  to  the 

books  by  Hausknecht,  "  The  English  Student "  and  "  Eng- 
lish Reader/'  I  wish  to  draw  attention  to  the  more  recent 
book  issued  for  French  schools,  "  Deutsches  Lesebuch  fur 
Quarta  und  Tertia"  by  Schweitzer.1  It  is  of  the  nature 
of  a  guide-book,  compiled  for  school  use.  Both  the  Haus- 
knecht and  the  Schweitzer  books  deserve  examination  by 
American  teachers.  In  this  country  we  must  glean  our 
material  from  a  number  of  sources,  for  example,  "  Gliick 
Auf,"  the  two  volumes  by  Menco  Stern,  "  Geschichten  vom 
Rhein  "  and  "  Geschichten  von  Deutschen  Stadten,"  Prehn's 
"  Journalistic  German,"  Kron's  "  German  Daily  Life," 
Hamann's  "Echo  of  Spoken  German,"  and  others.  One 
of  the  most  readable  histories  of  Germany,  portions  of  which 
might  find  a  place  in  the  reading  list  of  the  fourth  year,  is 
Stoll's  "  Geschichtliches  Lesebuch,  I.  Teil  bis  zum  West- 
falischen  Frieden,  II.  Teil,  "Das  19  Jahrhundert," 
Hamburg,  1902. 
1  Paris,  1903. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TEANSLATION. 

HAVING  selected  the  material  for  reading,  we  are  now 
ready  to  take  up  the  discussion  of  the  way  in  which  reading 
is  to  be  treated,  in  and  out  of  class.  I  have  already  dealt 
sufficiently  at  length,  in  the  chapter  on  pronunciation  from 
the  phonetic  side,  on  the  kind  of  proficiency  to  be  gained  in 
the  actual  reading  of  a  German  text,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  work  is  to  be  done.  We  can,  therefore,  confine  our 
attention  to  the  topics  that  deal  with  understanding  the  text, 
and  the  further  uses  for  which  it  is  adapted. 

The  importance  that  translation  has  assumed  in  modern 

language   work,  is,  to  a  great  extent,    traditional.     When 

German  and  French  began  to  be  studied  as  school  subjects 

there  was  already  a  highly  developed  method 

Translation  *n  ^e  S^U^Y  °^  the  classics,  the  main  elements 
of  which  method  were  slavishly  copied.  Trans- 
lation of  both  kinds  was  strongly  believed  to  be  of  great 
disciplinary  value  in  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  hence, 
as  the  same  discipline  was  desired  in  the  study  of  modern 
languages,  translation  was  cultivated  to  an  equal  degree.  In 
the  training  of  teachers  for  modern  language  positions  in 
Germany,  for  instance,  the  greatest  emphasis  was  laid 
on  the  grammatical  and  reading  side,  to  the  neglect  of  a 
practical  command  of  the  language.  Thus  their  knowledge 
was  narrow  and  one-sided.  They  were  well  equipped  to  work 

187 


188  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

in  translation,  but  quite  unfitted  to  work  where  translation 
was  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Necessity  then,  the 
result  of  tradition,  helped  to  keep  translation  in  power. 

Aside    from   this    great   force   of    tradition,    the   actual 
mechanics  of  language  teaching  have  helped  strongly  to  keep 
translation,  the  most  important  exercise  for  language  learn- 
ing.    In  the  first  place,  it  is  the  easiest  kind 

^conTwL  of  work  to  contro1-  TO  do  tolerable  work- 
good  work  is  another  question  —  only  a  low 
power  of  teaching  ability  is  demanded.  To  sit  before  a  class 
with  open  book,  and  listen  to  a  pupil  read  off  a  passable 
translation,  and  here  and  there  correct,  does  not  require  any 
great  skill  or  knowledge.  A  teacher  with  only  a  smattering 
of  German  can  grind  out  a  lesson  beforehand,  and  not  appear 
too  ignorant  before  a  class  translating.  With  a  fair  knowl- 
edge of  German,  an  indolent  teacher  need  not  even  look  at 
the  lesson  before  entering  the  class.  Lack  of  knowledge  of 
subject  is  an  old  complaint  in  Germany,  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States.  From  this  it  may  be  seen  that  translation 
can  be  used  by  the  lazy  and  ignorant  teacher  as  a  cloak  to 
hide  his  weakness.  In  American  schools,  where  a  great  deal 
of  work  is  done  outside  the  class,  when,  too  often,  teaching 
consists  simply  of  listening  to  what  has  thus  been  learned, 
the  assignment  of  translation  is  easily  and  definitely  made. 

Of  late  years,  however,  the  value  of  translation,  of  either 
kind,  has  been  severely  attacked,   as  being  not  only  un- 
necessary in  the  class-room,  but  decidedly  detri- 
mental to  the  student  of  languages.     Many  of 
Translation. 

the  Reformers  in  Germany  have  reduced  trans- 
lation to  a  minimum,  and  claim  that  the  net  Tesults  of  the  in- 


TRANSLATION.  189 

struction  in  French  and  English  are  greatly  increased.  From 
the  very  first,  class-room  explanations  are  made  by  the  teacher 
by  means  of  gestures,  objects,  pictures,  and  by  explanations  in 
the  language,  making  use  of  old  material,  of  course.  Trans- 
lation is  only  resorted  to  to  save  time,  and  when  there  is  dan- 
ger of  the  class  not  grasping  the  meaning  clearly.  As  early 
as  1892  Klinghardt1  describes  his  method  of  text  interpreta- 
tion of  "  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy,"  which  I  copy  verbatim, 
s.  18-1 9, 2  grocery  man  :  Mr.  B.,  Mr.  E.,  Mr.  R.,  are  three 
grocerymen  of  our  town  —  cross  (the  cross  groceryman)  : 
making  such  a  face  (teacher  gives  his  face  an  expression  of 
crossness)  and  speaking  unkindly  —  powerful :  full  of  power 
(power  =  French  "  le  pouvoir  ")  —  store  (American  word 
for  usual  English  "  shop  ")  :  the  room  where  the  groceryman 

1<(Drei  weitere  Jahre  Erfahrungen  mit  der  imitativen  Methode," 
Klinghardt,  Marburg,  1892,  pp.  97-98. 

2  His  greatest  friend  was  the  groceryman,  at  the  corner  —  the  cross 
groceryman,  who  was  never  cross  to  him.  His  name  was  Mr.  Hobbs,  and 
Cedric  admired  and  respected  him  very  much.  He  thought  him  a  very 
rich  and  powerful  person,  he  had  so  many  things  in  his  store,  —  prunes 
and  figs  and  oranges  and  biscuits,  —  and  he  had  a  horse  and  wagon.  Cedric 
was  fond  of  the  milkman  and  the  baker  and  the  apple-woman,  but  he 
liked  Mr.  Hobbs  best  of  all,  and  was  on  such  terms  of  intimacy  with  him 
that  he  went  to  see  him  every  day,  and  often  sat  with  him  quite  a  long 
time,  discussing  the  topics  of  the  hour.  It  was  quite  surprising  how  many 
things  they  found  to  talk  about  —  the  Fourth  of  July,  for  instance.  When 
they  began  to  talk  about  the  Fourth  of  July  there  really  seemed  no  end 
to  it.  Mr.  Hobbs  had  a  very  bad  opinion  of  "the  British,"  and  he  told 
the  whole  story  of  the  Revolution,  relating  very  wonderful  and  patriotic 
stories  about  the  villainy  of  the  enemy  and  the  bravery  of  the  Revolution- 
ary heroes,  and  he  even  generously  repeated  part  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  Cedric  was  so  excited  that  his  eyes  shone  and  his  cheeks 
were  red  and  his  curls  were  all  rubbed  and  tumbled  into  a  yellow  mop. 
He  could  hardly  wait  to  eat  his  dinner  after  he  went  home,  he  was  so 
anxious  to  tell  his  mamma. 


190  THE  TEACHING  OF  QEEMAN. 

sells  his  things,  or  where  you  find  the  things  you  want  for 
your  money  —  prunes  :  from  the  French  word  "  la  prune  " 
("  un  prunier  "),  in  Latin  :  "  prunus  "  —  figs  :  in  German 
"  Feige  "  —  biscuits  :  this  is  the  correct  English  word  for 
what  our  grocerymen  (Mr.  B.  and  so  on)  usually  call 
"cakes,"  little  things  about  that  (gesture  of  teacher)  big, 
made  of  flour  and  water  and  sugar,  also  some  vanilla,  etc.; 
they  are  usually  taken  with  tea,  etc.  —  fond  of :  loving,  a 
person  or  a  thing  —  baker  :  the  man  who  makes  bread  and 
cakes,  as  Mr.  E.  in  Frankenstein  Street  and  Mr.  B.,  my  next- 
door  neighbour — liked :  loved  —  terms  of  intimacy :  "  terms  " 
=  German  "  Beziehungen,"  intimacy  =  friendship  —  the 
topics  of  the  hour :  the  things  about  which  people  talk  most 
at  a  special  time  —  villainy  :  very  bad  character  —  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  :  =  French  "  Declaration  d'Ind6pen- 
dance" —  to  excite:  German  "aufregen"  —  cheeks;  these 
are  my  cheeks  (teacher  shows  his)  —  curls  :  most  of  you  have 
flat,  smooth  hair  (teacher  points  to  his  own  hair)  but  B.  and 
C.  have  curled  hair  (teacher  walks  up  to  these  boys  and 
points  to  their  heads)  their  hair  consists  of  a  great  number  of 
curls,  this  is  one  curl  —  his  hair  was  rubbed  and  tumbled 
into  a  yellow  mop  :  by  doing  this  (teacher  rubs  and  tumbles 
his  own  hair  or  that  of  a  boy)  you  rub  and  tumble  your  hair 
and  the  effect  is  a  mop.  —  hardly :  scarcely  —  anxious :  Ger- 
man "begierig." 

The  well-known  books  of  Alge l  are  also  important  to  re- 
member, in  this  connection. 

1  "  Leitfaden  fiir  den  ersten  Unterricht  im  Franzosischen,"  Alge,  St. 
Gallen,  1887,  2d  ed.,  1898.  "Beitriige  zur  Methodik  des  franzosischen 
Unterrichts,"  Alge,  St.  Gallen,  1894. 


TRANSLATION.  191 

The  present  position  with  regard  to  the  subject  of  transla- 
tion, if  we  except  some  of  .the   objections  recently  raised 
against  the  work  of  the  prominent  Reformers,  is  well  illus- 
trated  by   some   of  the   theses  presented   by 

ttfiMbraen  Wendt  at  the  Neuphilologentag,  held  at  Whit- 
suntide, 1898,  in  Vienna,  and  adopted  at  the 
next  meeting  held  in  Leipzig,  Whitsuntide,  1900.  Though 
primarily  directed  towards  systematizing  the  work  of  the 
upper  classes  in  Oberrealschulen  and  Realgymnasien,  they 
are  significant  for  all  grades  of  work. 

1.  Die  Unterrichtssprache  ist  Franzosisch  oder  Englisch. 
Besonders  schwierige  Stellen  konnen  deutsch  interpretiert 
werden. 

2.  Die  fremde  Sprache  wird  nicht  betrieben  um  daran  die 
Muttersprache  zu  lernen. 

3.  Das  Uebersetzen  in  die  Muttersprache  beschrankt  sich 
auf  die  Falle  wo  formelle  Schwierigkeiten  dazu  zwingen. 

This  represents  the  most  advanced  position  yet  taken. 
Among  the  teaching  body  throughout  Germany  there  is  a 
gradual  gradation  from  this  standard,  dependent  upon  the 
individual  teacher's  opinion  of  the  value  of  translation,  and 
partly  upon  the  teacher's  ability  to  work  out  such  a  plan 
successfully. 

To  meet  these  demands,  texts  are  now  being  edited  with 

notes  in  the  same  language  as  the  text.     They  are  written  at 

times   by   Germans,   often,   however,  by  for- 

GermaiTNotes    eigners-     An  attractive  series  is  the    "  Neu- 

sprachliche  Reformbibliothek,"  edited  by  Dir. 

Dr.  Bernhard  Hubert  and  Dr.  Max.  Fr.  Mann.1     The  pros- 

1  "  Neusprachliche  Reformbibliothek,"  Hubert  &  Mann,  Leipzig. 


192  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

pectus  is  also  out  of  a  new  series  in  the  hands  of  Dorr,  Junker, 
and  Walter.1 

1  will  give,  at  some  length,  reasons  for  and  against  transla- 
tion, in  order  to  make  the  situation  as  clear  as  possible. 
What  shall  now  be  our  attitude,  in  America,  towards  this 
T  t       perplexing  question?    More  particularly,  what 
or  Not  to  shall  be  the  attitude  of  teachers  who  are  capa- 
ble, if  necessary,  of  carrying  on  a  recitation 

wholly  in  German  ?  It  is  evident  that  teachers  who  have 
little  or  no  command  of  the  language  must  do  the  best  they 
can  with  translation.  According  to  the  Committee  of 
Twelve  : 

"  In  the  majority  of  schools  it  would  appear  that,  after 
the  first  few  months,  the  study  of  German  consists  princi- 
pally in  the  translation  of  German  literature  into  English. 
Translation  is  the  exercise  which  is  felt  by  both  teacher  and 
pupil  to  be  the  most  important,  and  is  the  one  accordingly 
which  is  most  insisted  upon."  2  Compared  with  the  Wendt 
theses,  already  given,  teachers  in  the  United  States  seem  to 
be  working  at  the  opposite  pole  from  the  advanced  Reform- 
ers in  Germany. 

Translation  is  the  most  obvious  and  convenient  way  of  ex- 
plaining the  meaning  of  a  text.  It  is  natural  for 

us  to  refer  back  to  the  mother-tongue  the  foreign 
Translation. 

sentences  we  see  before  us. 

In  class  instruction,  any  other  way  than  by  comparison  of 
the  foreign  with  the  mother-tongue  is  beset  with  difficulties, 

1"Sammlung  franz.  una  engl.  Schulausgaben  mit  fremdsprachlichen 
Erlauterungen,"  Dorr,  Junker  &  Walter,  Leipzig,  1903. 

2  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve. 


TRANSLATION.  193 

the  chief  of  which  is  that  the  teacher  has  not  the  time  to 
teach  all  the  pupils  in  the  same  thorough  manner,  by  means 
of  objects,    and   explanations   in   the   foreign 
language,  etc.     With  a  printed  text  before  the 
class,  and   a  vocabulary,   the  requisite  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  language,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  mother- 
tongue,  the  psychological  process  is  comparatively  simple. 

From  the  teacher's  standpoint,  translation  is  the  most 

efficient  test  of  the  pupil's  grasp  of  a  lesson.     It  may  be 

urged,  perhaps,  that  it  is  not  a  sure  test,  that  pupils  may 

apparently  translate  accurately,  and  yet   not 

understand  the  thought  of  the  text.    At  times, 
Knowledge. 

no  doubt,  this  is  true,  at  least  that  the  pupil 
gets  a  wrong  impression  of  a  passage,  but  a  thorough  teacher 
does  not  stop  at  translation.  That  should  only  be  the  begin- 
ning of  the  work  on  a  passage,  as  a  rule.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  risks  of  false  interpretation  from  not  translating  are  far 
greater,  even  in  the  hands  of  a  clever  teacher,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  less  competent  one.  The  trouble  with  a  large 
number  of  pupils  is  that  they  do  not  realize  when  they  do, 
and  when  they  do  not,  understand,  and  it  is  difficult,  except 
through  direct  translation,  for  the  teacher  to  satisfy  himself 
that  it  is  not  a  partial  understanding  that  the  pupils  are 
getting.  As  far  as  the  correct  employment  of  the  words 
and  phrases  is  concerned,  there  appears  no  weakness.  The 
trouble  may  lie  deeper  than  that.  It  is  so  difficult  to  get 
behind  the  symbol  and  see  what  value  is  attached  to  it. 
Under  the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  the  tendency  may  be 
easily  created  in  classes  to  get  the  drift  of  a  passage,  and  to 
be  content  with  that.  Such  a  tendency  soon  leads  to  super- 
14 


194  THE    TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

ficiality  and  general  mental  slovenliness  in  all  the  work. 
Accurate  translation,  with  all  its  interpretation,  acts  as  a  cor- 
rective against  thoughtless  work  by  young  and  immature 
pupils.  The  words  of  Storm,1  quoted  by  Sweet,2  and  the 
summing  up  of  Sweet  himself,  are  worthy  of  mention. 

"  The  living  oneself  into  the  foreign  language  has  also  its 
dangers.  One  easily  accustoms  oneself  to  a  partial  under- 
standing ;  one  does  not  form  a  definite  idea  of  the  special 
shade  of  meaning,  because  one  has  not  thought  of  correspond- 
ing expressions  in  the  native  language.  It  is  not  till  one 
can  translate  the  word  that  one  has  complete  mastery  over 
it,  so  that  one  not  only  understands  it,  but  can  use  it. 

"In  fact  translation  has  much  the  same  function  in  the 
vocabulary  that  grammatical  rules  and  parsing  have  in  con- 
struction ;  it  tells  us  how  far  we  can  go  in  our  unconscious 
or  half  conscious  associations.  .  ,  .  Translation  is  a  most 
valuable  means  of  testing  the  accuracy  and  correcting  the 
mistakes  in  our  unconsciously  and  mechanically  formed  asso- 
ciations between  our  ideas  and  their  expression  in  the  foreign 
language." 

Translation  has  long  been  regarded  as  an  excellent  disci- 
pline in  clear  thinking.     There  is  no  doubt  that,  under  a 
teacher  who  exercises  the  care  and  takes  the  time  to  teach 
the   pupils   how    to    interpret   accurately   the 
thougnt  expressed  in  a  foreign  language,  the 
pupils  in  time  learn  careful  discrimination  in  the 
use  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.     By  using  the  material 

1  "Forbedret  Undervisning,"  Storm. 

2  "The  Practical  Study  of  Languages,"  Sweet,  New  York,  1900,  pp. 
201-202. 


TRANSLATION.  195 

provided  in  the  foreign  text  as  a  basis,  accurate  knowledge 
of  English  can  be  taught,  together  with  flexibility  in  its  use. 
There  are  many  who  not  only  believe,  but  carry  out  the 
belief,  that  every  lesson  should  contribute  towards  a  better 
understanding  and  better  use  of  the  mother-tongue  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils.  There  are  others  who,  although  holding 
that  the  German  lesson  is  primarily  meant  for  the  study  of 
German,  not  English,  find,  unfortunately,  that  the  kind  of 
knowledge  the  pupils  possess  of  English  makes  it  imperative 
to  spend  considerable  time  with  the  English  side  of  the  lan- 
guage instruction,  in  order  to  make  any  sure  advance. 

A  certain  amount  of  translation  is  interesting  to  the  class. 
Pupils  have  often  come  to  me  and  told  me  that  it  was  a 
pleasure  to  translate.     I  think  there  is  foundation  for  the  lik- 
ing, especially  among  older  pupils  who  have  a 
good   command  of  their  English  vocabulary, 
partly  acquired  by  careful  training  in  translating  Latin. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  translation  that  must  not  be 
forgotten  is  the  nature  of  examinations,  more  particularly 
college  entrance  requirements.     Whatever  grade  of  examina- 
tion is  taken,  translation   is  always  strongly 
Examinations.  7  .   J 

represented.      Whether  examinations  in  which 

a  practical  command  of  the  language  can  be  tested  are  advis- 
able, or  feasible,  does  not  concern  us  here.  The  fact  remains 
that  translation  in  examinations  is  emphasized,  and  this 
means  that  pupils  must  be  carefully  trained  to  meet  the 
requirements. 

_  Let  us  place  opposite  some  of  the  reasons 

against  against    translation,    at    least    against    allow- 

Transiation.      ^  translation  to  hold  the  prominent  place 


196  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

it  used  to  hold,  and  still  holds  to  a  large  extent,  in  foreign 
language  instruction. 

Although  one  frankly  admits  that  pupils  in  classes  under 
a  teacher  of  French  or  German,  who,  at  the  same  time,  pos- 
sesses a  fine  sense  of  feeling  for  his  mother-tongue  and  takes 

the  pains  and  time  to  teach  his  classes  to  trans- 
Emphasis  on  .  . 
English.             late   in    careful    English,  will   increase   their 

knowledge  of  English  and  their  ability  to  use 
it  with  force  and  nicety  of  expression,  such  emphasis  on 
translation  makes  it  principally  an  English  exercise,  and  the 
lesson  is  supposed  to  be  a  lesson  in  German.  Freely  as  one 
grants  that  in  every  subject,  like  history,  geography,  the 
sciences,  etc.,  good  English  should  be  emphasized  as  part  of 
the  training,  that  no  foreign  language  should  be  studied  until 
the  students  have  some  definite  knowledge  of  their  mother- 
tongue,  a  good  vocabulary,  and  the  power  to  use  it  —  grant- 
ing all  this,  our  main  reason  for  studying  German  is  not  to 
get  a  better  grasp  of  English.  We  are  really  engaged  in  the 
study  of  German  for  the  sake  of  the  German.  Wherever  it 
is  necessary  to  further  our  end,  we  can  make  use  of  the 
English  language,  but  then,  and  only  then,  do  we  become 
for  a  time,  and  for  a  time  only,  teachers  of  English.  At  all 
other  times  we  are  teachers  of  German.  Walter,1  in  the  book 
so  often  quoted,  says  : 

"  Sollte  man  aber  wirklich  meinen,  dass  die  Muttersprache 
bei  diesem  Verfahren,  (i.  e.,  minimum  of  translation),  nicht 
zu  ihrem  Rechte  kame,  so  moge  man  dem  Deutschen,  das  an 
und  fur  sich  gewiss  einer  grosseren  Pflege  bedarf,  eine  Stunde 
auf  Kosten  des  Englischen  zuwenden,  wie  sich  ein  Gleiches 

1  "Englisch  nach  dem  Frankfurter  Beformplan,''  Walter,  p.  148. 


TRANSLATION.  197 

auch  in  einzelnen  Klassen  fur  das  Franzosische  und  Latein- 
ische  thun  liesse."  Many  teachers  of  modern  languages  in 
American  schools  would  doubtless  be  willing  to  have  the 
hours  for  English  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  German, 
especially  if  the  pupils  could  be  taught  English  in  such  a 
way  as  to  relieve  the  modern  language  master  from  the  task 
of  trying  to  teach  two  languages  at  once. 

The  foreign  language  teacher  ought  to  feel  that  he  has  a 
right  to  teach  French  or  German  for  itself  alone;  that 
wherever  English  is  brought  in  it  is  for  the  better  under- 
standing of  those  languages,  for  the  purpose  of 
oSTan^Sake  better  instruction  in  those  languages.  The  study 
of  Latin,  and  for  those  who  do  not  take  Latin, 
the  modern  languages,  has  too  long  been  regarded  as  the 
right  place  for  breaking  in  pupils  to  the  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish grammar.  Lately  the  question  has  been  raised  whether 
it  is  not  possible  to  give  a  boy  or  girl  the  same  efficiency  in  their 
knowledge  of  English  by  teaching  English  itself.  Professor  G. 
R.  Carpenter  argues  that  it  is  possible,  and  I  believe  personally 
that  it  is.  He  says :  "  It  is  true  that  English  and  the 
modern  languages  generally,  have  not  commonly  been  taught 
so  as  to  give  the  linguistic  discipline  which  it  is  well  known 
that  we  obtain  from  the  study  of  a  synthetic  language.  But 
though  this  may  establish  a  presumption,  it  does  not  prove 
that  an  analytic  language  cannot  be  taught  with  similar 
results.  Teachers  and  scholars  are  just  beginning  to  under- 
stand that  English  is  not  an  unorganized  or  haphazard  lin- 
guistic system,  but  is  a  highly  developed  and  wellnigh 
perfect  instrument  for  the  expression  of  modern  thought.  .  . 
Modern  methods  in  English  composition  seem  to  show  that 


198  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

this  is,  in  proper  hands,  an  extraordinarily  effective  instru- 
ment. There  is  a  somewhat  widespread  feeling,  moreover, 
that  the  study  of  English  grammar,  particularly  on  the  his- 
torical side,  and  of  the  earlier  forms  of  the  language,  may  be 
so  systematized  as  to  yield  as  remarkable  results  as  has  the 
recently  systematized  study  of  English  composition.  ...  It 
remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  system  of  teaching  the  Eng- 
lish language  now  in  process  of  development  .  .  .  has 
not  a  strong  chance  of  supplanting  Latin  as  the  most  con- 
venient and  effective  instrument  for  education  on  the  lin- 
guistic side." 1 

Translation  has  a  bad  influence  on  "  Sprachgefiihl."     The 
only  possible  way  for  one's  "  Sprachgefiihl "  of  German  to 
thrive,  is  to  keep  within  the  bounds  of  the  German  lan- 
guage.    We  have  just  said  that  translating  is 
Influence  on  •       •     TT<     i  •  i         i         •        s* 

sprachgefuhi.    an  exercise  m  English,  only  using  German  as 

a  basis  for  the  exercise.  A  simple  exercise  in 
English  is  negative  in  its  results ;  translation,  as  an  exercise 
in  English,  is  positively  harmful  for  the  growth  of  Sprachge- 
fuhi. The  natural  tendency  to  translate  a  new  language  is 
encouraged  instead  of  checked,  as  it  should  be.  Pupils, 
from  the  very  start,  are  taught  to  look  at  the  study  of  the 
language  from  the  wrong  point  of  view,  and  in  time  they  get 
into  ruts  out  of  which  some  of  them  never  climb.  Every- 
thing must  take  on  an  English  aspect  before  it  means  any- 
thing to  them.  The  German  text  is  hazy  and  unclear  until 
translated  into  other  symbols. 

It  is  difficult  and  takes  a  great  deal  of  time  to  acquire  the 

1  "  The  Teaching  of  English."     Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott,  New  York, 
1903,  pp.  20,  24.  25,  2& 


TRANSLATION.  199 

habit  of  translating  well.     If  a  translation  is  to  be  made  at 
all,  it  must  be  done  well,  in  English  that  will  bear  testing. 

If  we  make  an  English  exercise  of  it,  the 
Time*11  Ol  necessary  time  and  care  must  be  taken  to  make 

it  of  some  benefit,  and  not  injurious  to  the 
pupils.  Translating  and  reading  a  language  are  two  different 
processes,  for  a  pupil  may  read  a  language  almost  as  his 
mother-tongue,  and  yet  flounder  hopelessly  if  you  ask  him  to 
translate  at  sight.  He  understands  a  page  of  German  per- 
fectly, and  yet  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  sit  down  and  puzzle 
over  a  good  translation.  No  doubt  many  teachers  have  ex- 
perienced great  difficulty  in  preparing  a  lesson  in  translation, 
have  found  that,  after  struggling  some  time  over  the  lesson, 
one  of  the  pupils  who  knows  a  great  deal  less  of  the  lan- 
guage can  easily  put  him  to  shame.  The  reason  is  not  far 
to  seek.  For  years  the  teacher  has  been  reading  German, 
and  has  got  into  the  right  path  of  non-translation,  while 
the  pupil,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  spending  a  great  deal 
of  time  acquiring  the  technique  of  translation,  a  technique 
which  we  wish  him  to  forget.  At  least  we  wish  this  tech- 
nique to  fall  into  disuse  as  soon  as  possible,  for,  if  practised 
too  long,  it  will  ever  be  a  hindrance  to  his  really  knowing 
the  language.  Would  it  not  be  better  to  spend  much  of  the 
time  devoted  to  teaching  this  technique,  which  will  only  be 
a  check  in  the  long  run,  in  acquiring  the  power  of  reading 
and  understanding  the  original  language,  a  technique  wide 
in  its  possibilities? 

The  radical  Reformers  emphasize  speaking  the  language, 
and  the  spoken  word  is  the  foundation  of  the  course.  The 
study  of  the  written  language,  as  represented  in  literature, 


200  THE   TEACHING   OP  GERMAN. 

appears  in  time,  as  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  spoken 
language.  We  plunge  our  classes  into  easy  literature  as  soon 
as  pupils  have  gained  an  elementary  knowledge 
°^  grammar  and  vocabulary.  The  Reformers 
lead  the  pupils  through  the  spoken  word, 
gradually,  up  to  the  reading  text.  We  are  content  if  our 
pupils  can  recognize  German  words,  and  can  interpret  them 
in  the  mother-tongue.  The  Reformers  start  with  a  nucleus  of 
words  of  every-day  life,  and,  through  manifold  exercises, 
make  each  word  live,  so  that  the  pupils  can  not  only  recog- 
nize the  word  and  often  give  synonyms,  but  can  also  use  the 
word  in  speaking  —  of  course  within  a  limited  field.  Step 
by  step  with  them  the  preliminary  work  leads  up  to  the  read- 
ing of  texts,  and  the  simple  concrete  vocabulary  used  in 
speaking,  can,  if  cleverly  managed,  be  taught  with  little  or  no 
translation,  and  if  the  work  is  graded  the  reading  of  texts  can 
be  carried  on  in  the  same  way.  We,  on  the  other  hand, 
handicapped  by  time,  plunge  into  reading  after  a  short  gram- 
mar course.  We  start  from  the  very  first  by  emphasizing  the 
English  side,  so  that  when  the  suitable  time  for  reading  the 
text  arrives,  translation  is  all  that  we  can  do.  As  our  reading 
vocabulary  is  not  the  natural  outgrowth  of  our  speaking  one, 
translation,  at  any  rate  at  the  beginning  of  text  reading,  is 
an  absolute  necessity  under  such  conditions.  Some  few 
voices  have  been  raised  against  the  more  advanced  Reform- 
ers, as  intimated  above,  with  regard  to  this  very  subject  of 
translation.  It  may  be  that  some  have  gone  too  far,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  much  of  our  instruction  errs  on  the  other 
side.  There  is  far  too  much  time  and  energy  wasted  on  this 
exercise  of  translation,  valuable  time  that  could  far  better  be 


TRANSLATION.  201 

spent  in  working  along  the  lines  of  the  German  Reform. 
Direktor  Walter  is  against  compromise. 

"  Entweder  befolge  man  die  alte  Methode  oder  die  neue ; 
eine  Verquickung  beider  ist  fur  Lehrer  und  Schiiler  nach- 
teilig."  l  In  the  United  States,  however,  there  must  always 
be  a  compromise  until  modern  languages  are  placed  upon 
the  same  footing  that  they  are  on  in  Germany.  Pupils  pre- 
paring for  college  entrance  in  one,  two,  or  even  three  years, 
cannot  do  the  same  kind  of  work  as  is  done  in  Realgymna- 
sien  and  Oberrealschulen  with  courses  extending  over  six 
years  and  upwards.  Time  alone  cannot  be  considered.  An 
important  factor  is  the  previous  preparation  of  pupils  for 
linguistic  work.  The  description  of  the  work  in  the  Mus- 
terschule  at  Frankfurt  a.  M.,  as  given  in  Direktor  Walter's 
book,  deals  with  the  first  two  and  a  half  years,  with  six 
hours  a  week,  beginning  with  the  Untersekunda.  In  read- 
ing these  most  striking  results  we  must,  however,  remember 
that  a  similar  kind  of  French  work  has  been  done  by  pre- 
sumably the  same  pupils  since  the  Sexta  class,  for  five  years. 
Latin  too  has  already  been  studied  two  years.  The  con- 
ditions then  are  more  favorable  from  every  point  of  view 
than  in  any  school  in  the  United  States  with  which  I  am 
familiar. 

I  am  convinced  that  neither  extreme  is  the  right  method 

for  the  United  States.     A  course  in  which  translation  is  the 

principal  exercise  throughout,  errs  on  the  side  of 

ccmrse  being  too  conservative ;  the  other  extreme  is  far 

too  radical  to  suit  American  conditions  and 

American  needs.     As  outlined  in  a  previous  chapter,  what  we 

1  "Englisch  nach  dem  Frankfurter  Reform  plan,"  Walter,  p.  140. 


202  THE  TEACHING  OF   GERMAN. 

need  most  of  all  in  the  United  States,  is  a  reading  knowledge, 
the  very  best  we  can  give  our  pupils ;  all  other  aims  are 
secondary,  and  only  incorporated  into  the  course  in  order  that 
the  reading  ability  of  the  pupils  may  be  more  efficient. 

No  teacher  who  has  earnestly  tried  to  solve  the  problem 
of  translation  can  doubt  that  translation  can  be  abolished,  as 
a  regular  exercise,  sooner  or  later  in  the  course.  How  soon, 
depends  entirely  on  how  instruction  in  the 
tionbeAbol-  language  is  begun.  If  English  is  the  lan- 
guage most  heard  in  the  class-room,  then  of 
course  weaning  from  translation  comes  late,  if  attempted  at 
all.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  course  is  built  up  on  the 
plan  that  the  pupils  shall  hear  and  use  the  foreign  language 
as  much  as  possible,  translation  as  a  regular  class  exercise 
can  be  dispensed  with  from  the  very  first.  Whether  this  is 
advisable  for  all  teachers  to  attempt  is  another  matter.  All 
teachers  must  admit,  however,  that  every  minute  robbed 
from  English  and  gained  for  exercise  in  German  is  desira- 
ble, other  things  of  course  being  equal. 

In  addition  to  the  more  general  point  of  accuracy  in 
translation,  a  few  other  points  must  be  observed,  one  of 

which  is  clearness.     The  main  use  of  transla- 
Bequlsitea 

for  Good  tion  is  to  test  how  far  the   pupils  have  mas- 

Translation.      terec|  a  Definite  passage,  as  to  meaning  and 
form.     It  is  to  be  expected,  then,  that  a  pupil  who  has 
mastered  the  text  in  these  two  ways  will  be  able  to  give  the 
meaning  clearly  in  the  mother-tongue.     If  the 
translation  is  not  clear,  it  is  either  because  the 
meaning  is  only  partly  understood,  or  because  the  pupil  has 
been  careless  in  putting  the  meaning  into  its  new  form. 


TRANSLATION.  203 

The  teacher  must,  from  the  very  beginning,  insist  that  it 
is  not  simply  sufficient  for  the  pupil  to  understand  a  passage, 
but  he  must  also  take  the  pains  to  give  the  best  possible 

interpretation  of  that  passage.  It  is  not  to  be 
of  w^rds  expected  in  routine  high  school  work,  however, 

that  there  will  be  time  for  any  great  care  in 
the  choice  of  words,  only  a  fair  choice  of  words,  varying 
with  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  their  experience  with  the  lan- 
guage, can  be  insisted  upon.  The  semi-extempore  nature 
of  translation  puts  anything  like  a  literary  production  out 
of  the  question. 

Teachers  also  wish  pupils  to  show  by  their  translation 
that  they  understand  the  structure;  they  wish  a  rather 
close  translation,  and  not  a  paraphrase.  This  fact,  again, 

ought  to  make  it  evident  that  the  translation, 
structure6  ^  taken  down  in  shorthand,  would  not  be  ready 

for  publication.  There  is  danger  on  the  part 
of  some  teachers  that  they  will  take  too  much  time  in  trans- 
lating a  passage,  and  thus  lose  time  for  what  is  really  of 
more  importance.  The  teacher  must  not  worry  the  pupils, 
and  always  insist  upon  having  just  the  word  or  phrase  that 
he  thinks  is  right.  In  the  elementary  work,  a  more  literal 
translation  is  preferable.  The  aim  there  is  to  see  whether 
the  pupil  understands  case  relations,  tenses,  and  the  meaning 
of  individual  words.  Later,  when  the  class  has  had  con- 
siderable experience  in  "  handling  "  the  language,  more  lati- 
tude should  be  allowed  in  the  interpretation  whenever  the 
teacher  is  confident  that  the  pupil  could  give,  if  required,  a 
literal  translation  of  any  particular  passage. 

From  time  to  time,  written  translations  ought  to  be  done 


204  THE  TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

by  the  class  to  teach  them  what  a  good  translation  is.  This 
is  especially  valuable  in  the  upper  classes,  where  the  knowl- 
edge of  both  languages  is  greatest.  Before 
Translations  requiring  such  a  model  translation,  however,  it 
is  advisable  that  the  passage  should  be  given 
orally  in  class  and  corrected.  Then  specific  directions  as  to 
what  points  the  teacher  thinks  ought  to  be  brought  out  should 
follow.  As  for  correcting  such  exercises,  the  teacher  of  the 
class  is  the  person  who  will  naturally  do  it,  but  such  work 
might  well  form  part  of  the  composition  work  of  a  class  in 
English. 

The  last  point  that  should  be  insisted  upon  in  oral  trans- 
lation is  fluency.     As  a  rule  pupils  will  translate  about  as 
slowly  as  they  are  allowed.     If  we  except  the  time  taken  for 
corrections,  the  ideal  rate  of  translation  ought 

to  be  as  fast  as  one  ordinarily  reads  out  loud 
Oral  Worlz.  * 

in  English.  It  is  not  always  possible,  by  any 
means,  to  get  this  rate,  but  it  is  something  to  strive  for. 
The  teacher  must  begin  practically  the  first  day  to  get  rapid 
translation.  The  work  must  not,  of  course,  seem  to  be  hur- 
ried, but  I  think  my  meaning  is  clear.  To  see  the  English 
words  in  the  German,  and  to  read  them  as  if  the  page  were 
printed  in  English,  is  a  technique  which  must  be  practised 
like  scales  on  the  piano.  In  order  to  best  teach  this  tech- 
nique, the  pupil  must  understand  from  the  outset  that  no 
lesson  is  well  learned  in  which  he  has  to  stop  and  think  of 
the  meaning  of  a  word,  or  wait  for  the  teacher  or  class  to 
prompt  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lessons  at  the  begin- 
ning must  be  short,  so  that  the  pupil  can  fairly  be  expected 
to  meet  these  demands.  To  translate  without  stumbling 


TRANSLATION.  205 

requires  that  the  pupil  should,  in  preparing  the  passage,  go 
over  it  many  times  out  loud.  It  is  not  enough  simply  to  get 
out  the  meaning,  and  trust  to  inspiration  in  class.  Such  an 
attempt  in  the  class  is  sure  to  be  full  of  "  and-ers."  There  are 
some  pupils  who,  even  though  they  spend  a  great  deal  of  time 
preparing  the  translation,  translate  slowly  and  with  much 
repetition  ;  they  give  three  or  four  synonyms  for  a  word,  and 
cannot  seem  to  decide  upon  the  final  form  in  which  they  wish 
to  leave  the  word  or  phrase.  Such  work  must  be  stopped, 
if  possible,  from  the  start.  The  pupil  must  decide  before 
coming  into  class  just  how  each  word,  and  just  how  each 
sentence,  is  to  be  given,  and  he  must  go  over  it  enough 
times  to  be  sure  of  it.  If  instructions  are  given  early  in  the 
course,  and  insisted  upon  by  the  teacher,  and  no  translation 
accepted  that  does  not  advance  quickly  from  word  to  word, 
phrase  to  phrase,  the  technique  is  soon  mastered  by  the 
pupils.  Once  the  class  finds  out  what  kind  of  translation 
the  teacher  is  willing  to  accept,  the  average  pupil  will  meet 
the  requirements.  A  rapid  translation  is  just  as  easy  to  get 
as  a  slow  halting  one,  if  you  begin  at  the  beginning  with  a 
high  standard  and  keep  it  up.  The  teacher  can  also  aid  the 
pupils  to  acquire  facility  in  translation  by  gradually  increas- 
ing the  amount  each  pupil  is  to  translate.  At  first  the  trans- 
lation of  a  sentence  will  suffice,  especially  as  only  a  small 
amount  can  be  translated,  and  it  is  desirable  to  give  each 
pupil  a  chance.  Later,  this  is  not  so  necessary,  and  the 
length  of  the  passages  can  be  increased.  It  is  a  good  test  if 
the  pupil  can  give  a  clear,  brisk  translation  of  half  a  page. 
It  requires  better  preparation  and  presence  of  mind  than 
translating  three  or  four  lines.  The  review,  for  example,  is 


206  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

very  well  adapted  for  this  kind  of  work.  Translation  with 
an  interrogative  intonation  is  another  form  to  be  frowned 
upon.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  pupils  to  know  the  word,  to 
make  something  out  of  every  passage.  If  it  is  wrong,  it  will 
be  corrected. 

The  manner  in  which  corrections  are  to  be  made  by  the 
teacher,  is  also  an  important  matter  to  decide.  To  correct 
translation  well  is  a  difficult  matter.  To  decide  quickly 

whether  a  translation  will  pass  muster,  although 
Correction  of  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  teacljer  foas  na(j  jn 

Translation.  J 

his  own  mind ;  to  see  immediately  just  where 

the  trouble  lies  if  a  false  translation  is  made  ;  to  get  the  right 
translation  after  all  with  the  least  loss  of  time  and  the  least 
annoyance  to  the  pupil,  all  this  requires  considerable  peda- 
gogical ability.  As  a  general  rule,  the  pupil  ought  to  make 
the  correction  himself,  under  the  teacher's  guidance.  It  is 
easier,  of  course,  for  the  teacher  to  give  the  proper  word  or 
phrase,  but  this  is  not  teaching.  Telling  by  the  teacher 
ought  to  be  the  last  resort.  First,  the  pupil  should  be  called 
upon  to  correct,  then  the  class,  and  lastly,  the  teacher. 
With  a  text  of  suitable  difficulty,  and  a  high  standard  of 
accuracy  expected  of  the  pupils,  most  of  the  corrections  can 
be  made  by  way  of  suggestion.  Often  reading  the  passage 
to  the  pupils  with  the  proper  emphasis  is  sufficient,  or  a 
question  as  to  the  construction  of  an  important  word.  Above 
all,  the  teacher  must  have  studied  the  text  carefully,  noted 
the  difficulties,  and  be  thoroughly  equipped  on  all  sides. 
He  must,  from  his  knowledge  of  the  class  and  their  previous 
study  of  the  language,  know  how  much  he  can  reasonably 
expect  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  and  individually.  He  must 


TRANSLATION.  207 

keep  in  mind  the  vocabulary  of  the  pupils,  and  be  able  to 
refer  quickly  to  passages  where  the  word  or  phrase  has 
already  appeared,  and  he  must  also  be  always  ready  with  a 
stock  of  examples  of  all  kinds. 

The  most  valuable  work  in  translation  is,  after  all,  sight 
reading.  If  the  story  the  class  is  reading  is  of  the  proper 

degree  of  difficulty,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 

Sight  Beading.  .     ^         *    .-,         i  -.,  f  i 

the  majority   01    the  class  can,   with    caretul 

preparation,  give  a  good  translation.  Here  and  there  there 
will  be  something  to  correct,  to  improve  ;  but  a  class  with  a 
tradition  for  good,  sound,  earnest  work,  will  finish  this 
assigned  part  of  the  lesson  quickly,  and  give  the  teacher  a 
chance  to  read  often  at  sight  with  them.  After  all,  sight 
reading,  translation  at  sight,  is  a  real  test  of  a  pupil's 
knowledge  of  a  language,  and  needs,  for  this  reason,  to  be 
emphasized  as  a  regular  part  of  the  course.  It  gives  the 
teacher  a  good  opportunity  to  secure  individual  work,  not 
always  possible  when  the  translation  has  been  done  out 
of  class.  It  is  the  experience  of  many,  no  doubt,  that 
the  weaker  members  and  the  lazy  members  of  the  class 
receive  too  much  help  from  outside.  In  sight  work  it  is 
possible  for  the  teacher  to  see  just  where  each  pupil  stands, 
to  find  the  weakness  of  individuals,  and  of  the  class  as  a 
whole.  Sight  translation  looks  both  backwards  and  for- 
wards ;  it  is  review  work  and  advance  at  the  same  time, 
and  it  is  excellent  training  in  quickness  and  accuracy  of 
perception. 

In  addition  to  marshalling  previous  knowledge  of  vocabu- 
lary, structure,  etc.,  sight  reading  teaches  to  guess,  to  see 
quickly  from  the  context  what  a  passage  most  probably 


208  THE  TEACHING  OF  GERMAN. 

means,  even  though,  at  first  sight,  many  words  seemed  to  be 
unknown.  The  power  of  guessing  in  language  work  ought 
to  be  encouraged.  Naturally  it  should  not 


J 


Guess  Sickly  ^^  to  suPern>cial  preparation  of  homework, 
but  there  is  a  legitimate  place  for  guessing  in 
modern  language  work,  and  the  place  to  learn  it  is  in  the 
class-room  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher.  Sight  trans- 
lating, by  encouraging  guessing,  saves  a  great  deal  of 
mechanical  looking  up  of  words  in  the  dictionary.  Pupils 
too  lightly  get  into  the  habit  of  looking  up  words  when  there 
is  no  need.  Mechanically  they  turn  from  text  to  vocabulary 
for  almost  every  word,  words  they  have  had  many  a  time 
before  in  their  reading,  and  which,  with  the  right  attitude 
of  mind  towards  translation,  they  know,  without  wasting 
time  hunting  about  in  the  vocabulary  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  sight  translation  is  an  excellent 
vocabulary  builder,  from  the  standpoint  of  reading.  How 
excellent  for  this  purpose  depends,  to  be  sure,  on  the  manner 
in  which  the  teacher  works.  To  make  a  lan- 
BundCabUlary  SuaSe>  nowever  limited  the  field,  a  second 
mother-tongue,  requires  a  great  deal  of  time. 
From  the  recognition  stage  to  the  productive  stage  is  a  great 
leap.  To  simply  translate  a  word,  or  better  still  to  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  a  German  word,  takes  a  comparatively 
short  time,  and  in  sight  translation  is  the  place  to  begin  the 
building  up  of  this  kind  of  a  vocabulary.  Many  words  we 
know  after  we  have  seen  them  once.  The  old  words  and 
phrases  will  be  made  firmer  if  the  teacher  refers  to  passages 
that  have  already  occurred  in  the  class  reading.  The  new 
words  must  be  analyzed,  and  wherever  ao  English  word  not 


TRANSLATION.  209 

too  remote  in  meaning  lurks  in  the  German,  the  teacher  W~ 
should  not  fail  to  draw  attention  to  it.     In  fact,  the  teacher 
has  a  splendid  opportunity  to  clinch  what  the  pupils  have 
studied  in  the  language,  and  to  show  them  how  to  attack 
new  material. 

We  must  not  forget  the  fact  too  that  sight  translation  is 
intensely  interesting  to  the  average  class.  Providing  the 
passage  set  is  not  beyond  the  pupils,  the  whole  class  is  alive, 
and  this  means  the  class  is  learning.  The 
same  degree  of  attention  cannot  be  expected  on 
work  prepared  outside  the  class.  The  freshness 
has  been  taken  off  it.  If  the  pupils  have  studied  the  lesson 
well  they  gain  little  from  hearing  the  translation  given  in 
class.  They  follow  the  work,  to  be  sure,  but  not  with  the 
same  interest  and  alertness  as  in  sight  work. 

It  is  important  for  the  teacher  to  read  over  the  section  to 
be  translated  first,  himself;  in  the  upper  classes,  one  of  the 
better  pupils  may,  now  and  then,  be  chosen, 
the'selection     ^  Soo(^  reading  often  gives  the  pupils  a  clue 
to  the  meaning   better  than  any  other  hint. 
The  pupil  can  then  be  selected  and  allowed  to  attack  the 
material  in  his  own  way.     The  teacher  must  not  be  too 
ambitious  for  him  to  get  on,  or  worry  him  if  the  first  trans- 
lation is  a  little  rough.     If  the  pupil  does  not 
seem  to  get  on,  a  second,  or  even  a  third,  read- 
ing in  German,  emphasizing  important  words, 
is  often  found  helpful.     If  there  still  seems  difficulty,  the 
teacher  can  find  out  how  much  the  pupil  knows  of  the  sen- 
tence,   the   compound    words    can    be    analyzed,    German 
synonyms  suggested,  and  guessing  from  the  context  encour- 
15 


210  THE   TEACHING   OF    GERMAN. 

aged.  If  there  is  further  difficulty,  the  matter  can  be 
referred  to  the  class,  or,  as  a  last  resort,  the  translation  must 
be  given  by  the  teacher.  Of  course  the  teacher  must 
exercise  discretion,  and  not  make  too  much  of  word  or 
phrase,  thereby  losing  valuable  time.  The  hints  he  gives 
must  be  simple,  clear,  concise.  After  the  first  rough  draft 
has  been  made,  the  same  pupil  will  easily  go  back  and  give 
a  smooth  translation,  after  which  the  next  passage  can  be 
studied  in  a  similar  way.  Finally,  at  the  end  of  the  exer- 
cise in  sight  work,  time  ought  to  be  saved  for  one  member 
of  the  class  to  read  quickly  over  again  all  that  has  been 
translated  at  sight  that  day.  In  the  following  lesson,  the 
material  will  at  least  be  read  in  German,  or  will  form  the 
basis  for  question  and  answer  work. 

The  allusion  to  question  and  answer  work  in  the  preceding 

paragraph,  introduces  another  use  for  the  reading,  beyond 

mere  translating.     In  the  chapter  on  conversation  I  have 

discussed  the  value  of  asking  questions  to  bring 

Out   the   thread   °f   the    St°ry-      The    <luestion 
that  concerns   us   here  is,  how  much  of  the 

material  read  can  be  studied  in  this  way.  Manifestly  not 
all.  In  the  first  place,  much  that  is  read  does  not  naturally 
lend  itself  to  question  and  answer.  The  language  is  not 
conversational  in  tone,  and  as  it  is  necessary,  because  of  the 
elementary  type  of  oral  work  possible  in  a  high  school 
course,  to  keep  closely  to  the  text  in  vocabulary  and  form, 
questions  and  answers  based  upon  the  text  would  usually  be 
stilted  in  tone,  and  sound  unnatural  to  the  German  ear.  In 
the  second  place,  we  wish  our  pupils  to  read  as  much  as 
possible;  speaking  is  not  our  main  object.  And  as  has  been 


TRANSLATION.  211 

emphasized  again  and  again,  learning  to  speak  is  an  infi- 
nitely slow  process  compared  with  learning  to  read.  How- 
ever no  lesson  ought  to  pass  in  which  there  is  not  some 
intensive  study  of  the  reading  text  beyond  translation.  A 
part  of  the  lesson,  the  review  lesson  if  prepared  at  home,  or 
a  part  of  the  work  translated  at  sight  in  the  class  if  of  a 
suitable  nature,  could  be  utilized  for  this  purpose.  Other- 
wise a  book  adapted  for  conversational  purposes  can  be  read, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  reading  lesson  without  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  being  spent  in  exercises  in  which  the  mother-tongue 
plays  no  part.  Other  exercises  for  which  reading  material 
is  adapted  have  been  sufficiently  described  in  other  parts  of 
this  book. 

What  relation  should  grammar  teaching  bear  to  the  read- 
ing text  ?  I  remember  the  days  when  every  little  passage 
of  Caesar  that  was  translated  was  picked  to  pieces,  sentences 

analyzed,  declensions  and  conjugations  given, 
Grammar  and  *  "   ' 

the  Beading  subjunctives  described,  etc.  In  modern  lan- 
guage work  I  do  not  think  such  analysis  is 
necessary,  rather  inadvisable  during  the  time  set  apart  for 
reading.  I  wish  the  story  or  whatever  the  pupils  are  read- 
ing to  be  a  pleasure  to  them,  and  not  interrupted  at  every 
turn  by  grammatical  questions.  To  be  sure,  grammatical 
questions  must  be  asked  in  every  reading  lesson,  but  only 
when  it  is  necessary  to  bring  out  the  meaning.  Grammar 
must  be  taught,  and  the  connected  text  is  often  the  very  best 
place  to  teach  it,  but  the  reading  lesson  as  such  should  in 
general  be  kept  free  from  it. 

All  work  in  which  the  foreign  language  is  a  controlling 
feature  paves  the  way  to  understanding  the  text  without 


212  THE   TEACHING    OF   GERMAN. 

resorting  to  translation.  Exercise  in  dictation,  and  other 
exercises  in  which  the  hearing  of  the  pupils  is  trained,  all 
help.  Almost  from  the  first  lesson  the  teacher 

Elimination  of      jjj  rea(j  og-  ^e  review  sentences,  and  mem- 
Translation. 

bers  of  the  class  will  translate  from  hearing. 

It  acts  as  a  relief,  as  well  as  affording  excellent  practice,  to 
translate  at  least  a  part  of  the  advance  work  in  that  way. 
The  time  it  takes  is  well  repaid  by  the  results.  This 
reading  of  the  lesson  to  the  class,  and  requiring  them  to 
translate,  can  be  carried  on  in  all  grades  of  the  work.  At 
first  the  teacher  will  divide  the  sentence,  later  a  whole 
sentence  can  be  read,  and  an  accurate  translation  ex- 
pected. When  the  pupils  have  a  sufficient  vocabulary,  easy 
stories  may  be  read  to  the  class.  At  first  it  will  be  best, 
after  reading  a  short  passage,  to  go  back  and  get  a  transla- 
tion of  each  sentence.  Later,  the  translation  can  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  a  r6sum6  in  English  asked  for.  Still  later, 
a  whole  story  can  be  read  through  and  the  contents  given  in 
English,  and  the  story  then  retold  in  German,  though  usually 
the  better  plan  is  to  prepare  for  this  exercise  by  questions 
on  the  German  text,  as  I  have  suggested  in  the  chapter  on 
"Written  Exercises.  This  work,  which  is,  in  a  way,  supple- 
mentary to  the  regular  reading,  aids  the  class  in  time  to 
dispense  with  translating  everything.  With  a  reliable  upper 
class,  a  sufficient  test  of  thorough  preparation  is  to  ask  the 
meanings  of  the  more  uncommon  words,  and  the  translation 
of  the  more  difficult  phrases  and  clauses.  An  attempt  should 
be  made  at  this  stage  to  make  use  of  the  German  synonyms 
the  pupils  have  been  learning  throughout  the  course,  wher- 
ever possible.  After  this  preliminary  study  of  the  text, 


TRANSLATION.  213 

further  exercises  to  test  their  knowledge  may  be  taken  up, 
e.  g.,  question  and  answer,  etc. 

The  highest  type  of  work  would  imply  studying  the  Ger- 
man literary  text  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  a  literary 
text  is  studied  in  the  mother-tongue.     I  am  afraid,  however, 
that  the  large  majority  of  teachers  are  not  able 
ideal  study  of    ^  ^Q  gucj1  &  fag^  grade  of  work  successfully. 

Moreover,  to  put  pupils  in  such  a  position 
would  take  far  more  time  than  is  devoted  to  modern  lan- 
guage teaching ;  at  any  rate  it  would  lead  to  over-emphasis 
of  speaking,  to  the  neglect  of  reading,  in  secondary  schools. 
An  excellent  example  of  this  type  of  study,  however,  is 
given  by  Klinghardt.1  A  synopsis  of  his  manner  of  study- 
ing a  text  may  be  of  service  to  teachers  who  have  the 
knowledge  and  ability,  and  the  conditions  necessary,  to  fol- 
low it  well. 

"  Jedes  einzelne  textstiick  aber  macht  in  drei  auf  einan- 
derfolgenden  unterrichtsstunden  folgende  drei  stufen  der 
repetition  durch  :  a)  repetition  der  zu  den  neu  auftretenden 
vokabeln  gegebenen  worterklarungen  und,  wenn  einmal  zu 
einem  ganzen  satze  oder  zu  einer  construction  eine  erklarung 
nothwendig  gewesen  war,  repetition  auch  dieser ;  /?)  repeti- 
tion der  dem  gedruckten  texte  zu  grunde  liegenden  lautwerthe 
durch  vorlesen ;  f)  repetition  der  im  text  enthaltenen  vor- 
stellungen  (thatsachen)  durch  gegenseitiges  abfragen  der 
schiiler  unter  einander,  gelegentlich  auch  durch  fragen, 
welche  der  lehrer  selbst  an  die  klasse  richtet. 

Bezeichne  ich  nun  die  ersten  textstiicke  des  quartals  mit 
den  buchstaben  a,  6,  c,  d,  e  .  .  .  ,  so  ist  es  klar,  dass  ich  in 

1  "Drei  weitere  Jahre  Erfahrungen,"  Klinghardt,  pp,  101-102, 


214  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

* 

der  ersten  stunde  zunachst  nur  die  vokabeln  von  a,  zu 
erklaren,  nichts  aber  zu  repetiren  habe.  In  der  zweiten 
stunde  repetire  ich  die  vokabeln  von  a  und  bespreche  die 
neuen  vokabeln  von  6.  In  der  dritten  stunde  lasse  ,ich  a 
lesen,  repetire  die  vokabeln  von  6  und  interpretire  die  neuen 
vokabeln  von  c.  In  der  vierten  stunde  lasse  ich  a  dialogisch 
behandeln  —  und  damit  verschwindet  dieses  stuck  aus  dem 
laufenden  kursus  —  6  vorlesen,  frage  die  vokabeln  von  c  ab 
und  interpretire  die  in  d  neu  aufstossenden  vokabeln.  In 
der  funften  stunde  wird  6,  welches  hiermit  nun  seinerseits 
verschwindet,  nach  stufe  7-),  c  nach  stufe  /?),  d  nach  stufe  a) 
repetirt,  neu  besprochen  wird  e.  So  geht  dies  regelmassig 
weiter  fort  .  ." 


CHAPTER  X. 
VOCABULARY. 

THE  acquisition  of  a  vocabulary  must  obviously  demand  a 
good  share  of  attention  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language. 
Learning  to  speak,  read,  or  write,  a  language  other  than 
one's  own,  is,  after  all,  a  never  ending  study  of  words  and 
their  use  as  a  vehicle  of  thought.  As  in  all  kinds  of  high 
school  work,  we  are  here  concerned  with  making  a  judicious 
selection  of  material  and  means. 

Before  discussing  the  vocabulary  from  the  standpoint  of 

range,  we  must  first  be  clear  as  to  the  kinds  of  vocabulary, 

from  the  standpoint  of  grade,  that  we  need  in  secondary 

school  work.     For  our  present  purpose  there 

vocaim/ary  are  two  gra^es  to  be  considered  :  a  lower,  the 
reading  one  ;  a  higher,  the  speaking  vocabulary. 
Under  each  we  might  make  subclasses.  It  is  manifest  that 
the  latter  type  will  not  only  be  far  more  difficult  of  attain- 
ment, and  consequently,  if  for  no  other  reason,  far  smaller  in 
range,  but  also  from  the  nature  of  the  case  it  will  be  included 
in  the  former.  We  have  to  teach,  then,  one  vocabulary  only. 
The  size  and  degree  of  usefulness  of  the  speaking  vocabulary 
will  depend  upon  the  relation  that  speaking  bears  to  reading 
as  regards  emphasis  in  the  course. 

As  the  teaching  of  the  reading  vocabulary  is,  after  the 
early  stages,  more  indefinitely  done,  we  will  at  first  confine 
our  discussion  to  the  higher,  the  productive  vocabulary. 

215 


216  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

For  this  kind  we  can  build  up  almost  step  by  step  through- 
out the  whole  high  school  course,  whereas  the 
control  of  the  reading  vocabulary,  if  we  except 
some  specific  helps,  soon  gets  comparatively 
beyond  bounds. 

It  is  certain  that  the  old  way  of  requiring  pupils  to  learn 
a  definite  number  of  words  daily,  or  of  assigning  the  vocabu- 
lary in  connection  with  a  reading  lesson  to  be  prepared  before 
the  actual  reading,  ought  to  be  discarded.  The 
of  UuTwords  new  wor(^s  should,  on  the  contrary,  be  first 
presented  in  a  reading  text.  In  the  light  of 
the  context  the  meaning  of  the  new  word  is  given  more  at 
its  true  value,  and  its  association  with  the  idea  the  word 
represents  tends  to  be  clearer,  more  lively,  and,  hence,  more 
lasting.  The  meaning  of  many  words  would,  to  be  sure,  at 
once  be  understood  whatever  their  position,  whether  in  word 
lists,  or  in  a  connected  passage,  e.  g.y  father,  mother,  dog, 
etc.  Other  words,  however,  need  a  context  to  show  them  in 
their  true  light.  Even  if  the  words  in  given  lists  bear  a 
certain  relationship  to  each  other,  they  will  not  appeal  to  the 
learner's  interest  as  the  same  words  would  incorporated  into 
sentences  logically  connected.  I  do  not  mean  to  imply 
that  we  can  afford  to  discard  learning  words  singly,  or  in 
lists,  in  connection  with  the  reading,  or  arranging  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  pupil,  from  time  to  time,  into  groups  of  words 
allied  in  subject.  Such  work,  however,  is  not  the  first  step  to 
be  taken  in  the  study  of  the  vocabulary.  It  presupposes  that 
considerable  practice  has  been  given  in  other  ways  towards 
learning  the  words,  either  by  reading,  writing,  or  speaking. 
Afterwards,  systematization  offers  a  good  means  of  review. 


VOCABULAKY.  217 

How  the  vocabulary  is  to  be  presented  in  connected  form, 
whether  in  a  number  of  short  stories,  or  anecdotes,  dealing 
with  a  variety  of  subjects,  or  in  a  number  of  constructed 
texts  each  covering  a  definite  field,  is  not  so 
vitally  important,  providing,  in  each  case,  the 
aim  is  to  teach  pupils  in  a  short  time  a  well 
balanced  stock  of  common  words.  The  constructed  text  has 
the  advantage  of  directness,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may 
be  so  over-loaded  with  words  belonging  to  the  same  group 
as  to  make  the  selection  void  of  interest.  On  the  whole,  a 
combination  of  the  two  kinds  is  desirable,  texts  (they  may  be 
constructed,  as  the  letters  in  Thomas's  Grammar)  interesting 
in  themselves,  and  constructed  texts  of  the  above  type,  which, 
though  not  necessarily  interesting  in  themselves,  can  be  made 
attractive  by  the  teacher  by  means  of  object  lessons.  These 
texts  may  be  regarded  as  a  means  of  repetition,  in  a  con- 
nected form,  of  the  various  words  and  expressions  that  have 
been  taught  in  the  "  Anschauungsunterricht." 

The  presentation  of  the  vocabulary  in  a  connected  form, 
followed  by  the  reading,  is  merely  the  preliminary  stage  in 
its  study.  The  second  step  is  intensive  treatment  of  the 
intensive  vocabulary.  The  manner  in  which  this  is  to 

Treatment  of  be  done  has  already  been  thoroughly  explained 
7'  in  the  chapters  on  Work  in  Speaking,  Gram- 
mar, etc.  In  general,  any  exercise  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  the  language  in  which  the  teacher  can  maintain  a 
high  degree  of  interest  and  responsiveness  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils,  influences  the  acquisition  of  a  vocabulary  for  the  good. 
If  the  reading  text  has  been  gone  over  in  the  manifold  ways 
that  have  been  suggested,  by  question  and  answer,  by  conju- 


218  THE   TEACHING   OP   GERMAN. 

f  gating  in  sentences,  by  changes  in  form,  by  substitution  of 
j  words  and  expressions  of  kindred  meaning,  and  by  written 
exercises  carried  on  entirely  in  the  foreign  language,  or  in 
the  form  of  English  sentences  to  be  translated  back,  a  great 
deal  has  been  done  towards  fixing  the  new  vocabulary.  Not 
all  by  any  means.  The  old  words  must  be  kept  from  fading 
from  consciousness  by  repetition  in  new  connections.  One 
valuable  means  that  can  be  easily  carried  on  in  the  early 
stages  of  instruction  is  to  expect  the  pupil  not  only  to  recog- 
nize old  words,  but  also  to  give  the  contexts  of  passages  in 
which  the  word  has  already  appeared.  In  this  way  he  not 
only  strengthens  his  hold  of  old  words  and  phrases,  but  also 
learns  to  distinguish  clearly  what  there  is  new  in  the  passage. 
So  far  we  have  considered  the  productive  vocabulary 
in  particular.  As  the  pupils'  power  to  read  grows,  and  the 
time  that  can  be  devoted  to  reading  increases,  the  control  of 
the  teacher  over  the  pupils'  vocabulary  becomes, 

as  has  been  said,  less  definite.     There  is  not 
Vocabulary. 

time,  nor  is  it  advisable,  to  make  over  into 
productive  vocabulary  all  that  is  found  in  the  reading.  The 
pupil  meets  words  and  expressions  which  he  would  rarely,  if 
ever,  have  occasion  to  use  in  conversation,  even  if  he  were 
dealing  with  his  mother-tongue  and  not  a  foreign  language. 
How  are  we  then  to  build  up  a  reading  vocabulary  ?  After 
one  has  gained  a  good  control  of  the  common  language  and 
grammar  through  intensive  study  of  a  limited  field,  as  out- 
lined above,  much  help  undoubtedly  comes  from  simply  read- 
ing cursorily  as  much  as  time  will  admit.  Much  reading  of 
easy  prose  gives,  perhaps  better  than  any  other  one  thing,  a 
V>  feeling  of  being  at  home  in  the  language.  The  same  words 


VOCABULARY.  219 

and  expressions,  the  same  sentence  structure,  occur  again  and 
again  in  rapid  succession.  The  meanings  of  many  words,  even 
without  the  aid  of  the  dictionary,  are  in  this  way  eventually 
borne  in  upon  us.  I  would  even  advise  reading  some  books 
without  the  aid  of  the  dictionary  at  all,  just  to  see  what  the 
class  can  make  out  of  them.  If  done  with  the  proper  attitude 
of  mind,  such  reading  has  its  value.  It  could  be  assigned 
from  time  to  time  as  outside  reading.  Reading  to  the  class^also 
has  a  very  beneficial  influence  on  the  vocatralary.  If  suitable 
as  regards  difficulty,  and  interesting,  the  teacher  can  count 
upon  a  high  grade  of  attention.  The  eagerness  of  the  pupils 
to  get  the  story  imprints  especially  the  key  words  on  their 
minds,  and  also  other  unknown  words  which  the  teacher  will, 
as  a  rule,  explain  or  translate.  The  importance  of  sight-read- 
ing as  a  vocabulary  builder  has  been  discussed  elsewhere. 
The  more  mechanical  means  of  studying  either  the  speak- 
ing or  reading  vocabulary,  will  deal  with  organizing  it  ac- 
cording to : 

1.  Logical  categories. 

2.  Word  formation  and  combination. 

3.  Kinship  with  English  words. 

Arrangement  of  the  vocabulary  systematically,  according 
to  subject,  has   been  suggested  as  an  excellent  means  of 
clinching  and  controlling  what  has  already  been  worked 
over  in  other  ways.     The  pupils  can  fairly 
categories         early  start   collecting   in   a   vocabulary  note- 
book, a  judicious  use  of  which  material  can  be 
made  by  the  teacher.     Here  and  there,  for  the  sake  of  com- 
pleteness, it  may  be  advisable  to  fill  in  gaps,  for  grammat- 
ical drill,  and  further  work  in  conversation. 


220  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEKMAN. 

I  do  not  think  it  is  necessary  to  put  a  printed  word-book  in 

the  hands  of  pupils,  like,  for  example,  the  "  Petit  Vocabu- 

laire  Francais,"    by  Ploetz.1     Teachers  may, 

Books6  however,  find  such  a  book  helpful.     A  larger 

work  is  by  Kriiger.2     There  is  also  an  abridged 

American  edition.3 

To  the  pupil  who  already  possesses  some  acquaintance 
with  German,  the  stadj^ofjTord^  building  offers  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  means' of  organizing  and  enlarging  the  vocabu- 
lary.    German  is  not  only  rich  in  inflectional 
Study  of  Word          •,.          .,    .       ,  •     t       .  t   .     * 

Building.  endings,  it  is  also  surpassingly  rich  in  forma- 

tive elements,  with  the  aid  of  which  a  large 
number  of  derivatives  may  be  formed  from  a  modest  stock 
of  primitives.  If  we  think  of  the  verb  "  sprechen,"  *  for 

1  "Petit  Vocabulaire  Francis,"  Ploetz,  29th  ed.,  Berlin,  1901. 
2 "  Englisch-Deutsches  Worterbuch  nach  Stoffen  geordnet  fur  Studie- 
rende,  Schulen,  und  Selbstunterricht,"  Kriiger,  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1895. 

3  "Conversation  Book,"  Kriiger  and  Smith,  Boston. 
4  Spreche,  sprach,  gesprochen.     ab-,  an-,  aus-,  be-,  durch-,  ein-,  ent-,  fort-, 

frei-,  fur-,  los-,  mit-,  nach-,  ver-,  vor-,  wider-,  zu-,  zusammen-sprechen. 

ab-,  an-,  ent-,  wider-sprechend. 
Sprecher,  Fern-,  Fur-,  Nach-,  Ver-,  Vor-,  Wider-sprecher ;  Fiir-sprecher, 

schweizerisch  auch  Fiirsprech. 
Ver-sprechung. 

Sprech-art,  -sucht,  -saal,  -zimmer. 

Sprech-bar,  -siichtig ;  unaus-,  unwider-sprechlich.     gross-sprecherisch. 
Sprich-wort,  sprichwort-lich,  Sprichworter-Sammlung. 
Sprache,  Ab-,  An-,  Aus-,  Ein-,  Fur-,  Ruck-,  Ur-,  Vor-,  Zu-sprache.  — 

Bauch-,  Bilder-,  Bauern-,  Diebs-,  Finger-,  Grand-,  Haupt-,  Helden-, 

Kunst-,  Mutter-,  Zwie-sprache. 
Sprach-lich.     Ge-sprach  (altes  Adj. ),  Ge-sprach,  ge-sprachig,  an-sprachig 

(leutselig),  red-sprachig  (redselig). 
Sprach-bau,  -fehler,  -forscher,  -forschung,  -fiihrer,  -gebrauch,  -ge-menge, 

-gesetz,  -gitter,  -kenner,  -kenntnis,  -kunde,  -kunst,  -lehre,  -lehrer,  -meis- 

ter,  -reinigkeit,  -richter,  -rohr,  -schatz,  -ubung.  —  sprach-arm,  -fertig, 


VOCABULARY.  221 

example,  we  can  easily  collect  fifty  or  sixty  words  in  com- 
mon use,  either  compounds  or  derivatives.  The  philolog- 
ical equipment  necessary  for  a  thorough  study  of  word  for- 
mation cannot,  of  course,  be  given  in  school,  still  some 
definite  work  ought  to  be  done,  especially  in  courses  extend- 
ing over  four  years.  In  the  last  year  or  so,  a  systematic 
study  of  word  building  would  be  quite  in  place.  Even  in 
shorter  courses  the  pupils  can  be  taught  to  lighten  the  labor 
of  vocabulary  learning,  if  given  even  a  superficial  insight 
into  derivation  by  means  of  Umlaut,  Ablaut,  prefix,  suifix, 
and  word  combination.  It  is  expected  that  during  the  first 
course  in  grammar,  in  connection  with  the  study  of  nouns, 
adjectives  and  verbs,  the  more  common  prefixes  and  suffixes 
will  be  briefly  explained,  and  attention  drawn,  where  profit- 
able, to  English  cognates.  Compounds  will  naturally  be 
analyzed  as  much  as  practicable.  It  is  after  the  first  course 
in  grammar,  however,  that  the  most  work  can  be  done  ad- 
vantageously in  connection  with  the  study  of  the  reading. 
For  the  pupils  now  possess  a  vocabulary  of  common  words, 
and  some  acquaintance  with  the  characteristics  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  practice  of  getting  the  class  to  give  orally,  or 
collect  in  exercise  books,  or  both,  words  having  a  common 
primitive,  cannot  fail  to  have  a  stimulating  effect  on  the 
study  of  the  vocabulary.  If  not  carried  to  excess,  the 

-gelehrt,  -gemass,  -gewandt,  -kundig,  -los,  -richtig,  -widrig.  —  Sprach- 
fertigkeit. 

Spruch,  An-,  Aus-,  Ein-,  Ver-,  Vor-,  Wider-,  Zu-spruch  ;  Bibel-,  Denk-, 
Kern-,  Lob-,  Macht-,  Kichter-,  Sinn-,  Sitten-,  Wahl-spruch.  —  Spruch- 
buch,  -kollegium,  -dichter,  -register. — Spruch-reif,  -reich,  -fertig,  an- 
spriichig  (-beansprucht,  streitig  gemacht).  anspruchs-los,  anspruchs- 
voll,  be-anspruchen.  For  this  and  other  examples  see  "Grundzuge  der 
Neuhochdeutschen  Grammatik "  Bauer-Duden,  Miinchen,  1902. 


222  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

teacher  ought  not  to  have  any  difficulty  in  instilling  interest 
in  this  kind  of  systematization  of  the  vocabulary. 

The  relation  that  English  bears  to  German  is  also  a  very 

helpful  means  of  securing  a  large  vocabulary  rapidly.    Again 

there  are  great  limitations  set  to  comparison  between  the  two 

languages.     Philology  is  not  a  school  subject. 

KGlcLuiOU  D6~  ^ 

tween  German  Any  elaborate  exposition  of  "  Grimm's  Law  " 
and  English.  jg  quite  Qut  of  place<  Jt  woul(J  involve  too 

great  an  expenditure  of  time,  and  only  produce  confusion  for 
lack  of  the  requisite  knowledge  of  philology  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  What  pupils  need  at  this  stage  is  a  little  help 
to  enable  them  to  establish  associations  between  the  more 
obvious  cognate  forms  in  the  languages.  The  close  simi- 
larity between  many  words  will  be  noticed  at  once  by  the 
pupils  without  any  outside  help.  Other  words  need  a  little 
hint  before  the  affinity  will  be  recognized.  Any  long,  ab- 
struse explanation,  however,  is  entirely  out  of  place.  As 
an  aid  to  the  study,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  lesson  books 
should  give  cognate  forms  in  connection  with  the  vocabu- 
laries, and  the  teacher  should,  from  the  start,  draw  the 
attention  of  the  class  briefly  to  the  relationship  as  the  words 
appear.  It  matters  little  that  the  meanings  do  not  always 
coincide.  A  short  sketch,  now  and  then,  of  words  that  have 
a  history,  will  no  doubt  afford  pleasure  and  arouse  interest 
for  linguistic  work.  If  the  practice  is  continued  the  class 
can  be  led  to  classify,  after  they  possess  a  fair  knowledge 
of  the  language,  some  of  the  more  characteristic  consonantal 
differences. 

An  elementary  study  of  synonyms,   or  even  of  words 
which,  strictly  speaking,  do  not  come  under  the  head  of 


VOCABULARY.  223 

synonyms,  also  has  a  value  as  a  vocabulary  builder.     But 

any  systematic  study  of  synonyms  presupposes  a  far  greater 

acquaintance  with  German  than  is  possible  in 

high  school.  To  distinguish  between  words 
Synonyms. 

in  one's  own  language,  by  way  of  definition, 
is  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  A  great  deal  has  been  done 
if  pupils  can  be  taught  a  number  of  words  similar  in  mean- 
ing, and  some  accuracy  in  their  use.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  substitution  of  other  words  and  expressions, 
in  the  chapter  on  Work  in  Speaking. 

Work  in  translation  offers  the  teacher  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  leading  the  pupils  to  feel  differences  in  shades 
of  meaning.  The  practice,  as  suggested  under  Translation, 

of  requiring  the  whole  class  to  offer  various 
Translation.  ,  _ 

English    synonyms    by   way   of  correcting   a 

translation,  serves  as  a  means  to  this  end.  Translation 
into  the  foreign  language  is  another  means.  In  the  correc- 
tion of  written  exercises,  for  example,  the  use  of  "  hoch " 
for  "  gross  "  and  "  hart "  for  "  schwer,"  will  be  an  occasion 
for  bringing  out  the  difference  in  meaning  and  usage.  I 
suggest  here  also,  that  as  such  distinctions  are  made,  the 
pupils  should  write  them  down  in  a  convenient  place  for 
reference.  In  time,  a  good  number  of  words  can  be  thus 
collected.  The  teacher,  of  course,  should  guard  against 
making  the  list  larger  than  the  pupils  can  control,  and  also 
against  choosing  words  for  discussion  the  difference  of  mean- 
ing of  which  cannot  be  easily  made  apparent  to  the  pupils. 
Elementary  instruction  in  giving  words  of  opposite  meaning 
also  serves  to  bind  the  vocabulary  more  closely  together. 


BIBLIOGEAPHY. 

THE  following  bibliography  contains  the  principal  books, 
pamphlets,  and  articles  I  have  found  of  help  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  book.  For  a  more  complete  bibliography  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  following  :  H.  Breymann,  "  Die 
neusprachliche  Reform-Literatur  von  1876-93,"  Leipzig, 
1895.  A  second  volume  brings  the  bibliography  down  to 
1899  inclusive,  Leipzig,  1900  ;  O.  Wendt,  "  Encyclopadie 
des  franzosischen  Unterrichts,"  Hannover,  1895,  and  the 
companion  volume  "  Encyclopadie  des  englischen  Unter- 
richts," Hannover,  1893,  will  be  found  useful.  W.  Munch, 
"  Franzosischer  Unterricht,"  Miinchen,  1902,  also  contains 
a  helpful  bibliographical  list.  Karl  Breul,  "  The  Teaching 
of  Modern  Foreign  Languages,"  New  York,  Macmillan, 
1899,  devotes  about  twenty  pages  to  the  reference  library  of 
a  school  teacher  of  German.  Consult  also  his  "Handy 
Bibliographical  Guide,"  London,  1895,  for  works  of  wider 
scope.  For  phonetics,  H.  Breymann,  "Die  Phonetische 
Litteratur  von  1876-1895."  "Eine  bibliographisch-kri- 
tische  Ubersicht,"  Leipzig,  1897.  An  excellent  list  of 
important  writings  on  the  subject  is  likewise  contained 
in  the  May,  1903,  number  of  the  "  Teachers  College 
Record."  L.  Bahlsen,  "  New  Methods  of  Teaching  Modern 
Languages." 

224 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  225 

List  of  periodicals  either  primarily  devoted  to  modern  language 
teaching  or  containing  articles  from  time  to  time. 

Editors.  Titles. 

Czuber.     Zeitschrift  fur  das  Realschulwesen,  Wien. 

Elliott.     Modern  Language  Notes,  Baltimore. 

Freytag.     Pddagogisches  Archiv,  Braunschweig. 

Fries  and  Meier.     Lehrproben  und  Lehrgange,  Halle. 

Greg.     The  Modern  Language  Quarterly,  London. 

Griebsch.     Pddagogische  Monatshefte,  Milwaukee. 

Hoops.     Englische  Studien,  Leipzig. 

Kasten.     Neuphilologisches  Centr&tblatt,  Hannover. 

Kaluza,   Koschwitz,   Thurau.      Zeitschrift    fur    franzosischen     und 

englischen  Unterricht,  Berlin. 

Lyon.     Zeitschrift  fur  den  deutschen  Unterrickt,  Leipzig. 
Schilling.     Pddagogische  Studien.     Dresden. 
Wolfromm.     Revue  de  V  enseignement  des  languea  vivantes,  Paris. 
Vietor.     Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  Marburg. 
The  Educational  Review,  New  York. 
The  Educational  Times,  London. 
The  Journal  of  Education,  London. 
The  School  World,  London  and  New  York. 

BOOKS,   PAMPHLETS,  AND  ESSAYS. 

Alge,  S.  Beitrage  zur  Methodik  des  franzosischen  Unterrichts, 
St.  Gallon,  1894. 

Alge,  S.  Leitfaden  fur  den  ersten  Unterricht,  unter  Benutzung 
von  Holzels  Wandbildern.  St.  Gallen,  1899. 

Alge,  S.  Zur  Methodik  des  franzosischen  Unterrichts.  St.  Gallen, 
1893. 

Allcock,  A.  E.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages.  Essays  on 
Secondary  Education  by  Various  Contributors,  ed.  Chr.  Cook- 
son,  p.  149.  Oxford,  1898. 

Baerwald,  R.  Eignet  sich  der  Unterricht  im  Sprechen  und  Schrei- 
ben  fremder  Sprachen  fur  die  Schule?  Marburg,  1899. 

16 


226  THE   TEACHING    OF    GERMAN. 

Baerwald,  R.     Neue  und  ebenere  Bahnen  im  fremdsprachlichen 

Unterricht.     Marburg,  1898. 
Baetgen,  L.     Der  franzosische  Unterricht.   EncyJdopddisches  Hand- 

buch  der  Padagogik,  Rein,  1895. 
Bahlsen,  L.     Der  franzosische  Sprachunterricht  im  neuen  Kurs. 

Berlin,  1892. 

Baumann,  F.     Reform  und  Antireform  im  neusprachlichen  Unter- 
richt.    Berlin,  1902. 
Bechtel,  A.     Der  Stand  der  Reform  des  Sprachunterrichts.    Zeit- 

schriftf.  d.  Kealschulwesen,  XVIII.,  1893,  257  flf. 
Bechtel,  A.    International  Congress  fur  den  Unterricht  in  den 

neueren  Sprachen.     Zeitschrift  /.  d.  Realschulwesen,  XXV., 

1900,  641  flf. 

Beyer,  F.     Der  neue  Sprachunterricht.     Cothen,  1893. 
Beyer,  F.     Die  Lautschulung  in  meinem  Anfangsunterricht.    Die 

Neueren  Sprachen,  1894,  II.,  65-75,  136-151. 
Bierbaum,  J.     Die  analytisch-direkte  Methode  des  neusprachlichen 

Unterrichts.     Cassel,  1887. 
Bierbaum,  J.      Die  Reform  des  fremdsprachlichen  Unterrichts. 

Cassel,  1886. 
Bohm,  C.     Das  Prinzip  der  Anschauung  angewendet  auf  den  Ele- 

mentarunterricht  in  lebenden  Fremdsprachen,  insbesondere 

auf  den  Unterricht  im  Franzosischen.  Braunschweig,  1878. 
Breal,  M.  De  1'enseignement  des  langues  vivantes.  Paris,  1892. 
Brebner,  Mary.  The  Method  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages  in 

Germany.     London,  1899. 
Breul,  K.     The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages.     London, 

1899. 
Breymann,  Herm.,  u.  Moller,  Herm.     Zur  Reform  des  neusprachlichen 

Unterrichts.      Anleitung  zum  Gebrauch  des  franzosischen 

Elementar-Ubungsbuches.     Miinchen,  1884. 
Colbeck,  C.     On  the  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Theory  and 

Practice.     Cambridge,  1887. 
Collard.     La  M6thode  directe  dans  1'enseignement  des  langues 

vivantes.    Bruxelles,  1901. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  227 

Daws,  T.     Bilingual  Teaching  in  Belgian  Schools.     London,  1902. 
Eidam,  C.     Phonetik  in  der  Schule?    Etc.     Wurzburg,  1887. 
Franke,  F.     Die  praktische  Spracherlernung  auf  Grund  der  Psy- 

chologie  und  Physiologic  der  Sprache.     Heilbronn,  1896. 
Gouin,  F.     The  Art  of  Teaching  and  Studying  Languages.   Trans. 

by  Swan  and  B6tis.     London,  1892. 
Gundlach,  A.     Keformunterricht  auf  der  Oberstufe.     Die  Neueren 

Sprachen,  1896.     III.,  462-475. 
Gundlach,  A.    Unterricht  in  der  franzosischen  Sprache  an  hoheren 

Lehranstalten  (einschliesslich  Selbstunterricht).  Jahresbericht 

iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  Romanischen  Philologie.      II.,    267- 

453.     Leipzig,  1897.     IV.,  4.  Teil,  1-72.     Leipzig,  1900. 
Hartmann,  K.  A.  M.     Die  Anschauung  im  neusprachlichen  Unter- 
richt.    Wien,  1895. 
Hartmann,  K.  A.  M.     Reiseeindriicke  und   Beobachtungen  eines 

deutschen  Neuphilologen  in  der  Schweiz  und  in  Frankreich. 

Leipzig,  1897. 
Hausknecht,  E.     Englischer  Unterricht.     Rein's  EncyklopMisches 

Handbuch  der  Pddagogik,  1895. 

Hausser,  E.     Lebendige  Grammatik.     Potsdam,  1902. 
Hempl,  G.     German  Orthography  and  Phonology.     Boston,  1897. 
Hengesbach,  H.     Der  franz.  Unterricht  am  preussichen  Gymnasium 

nach  der  neuen  Lehrmethode.     Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  III., 

129-149. 

Herrmann,  K.     Die  Technik  des  Sprechens.     Leipzig,  1902. 
Hochdorfer,  R.     The  Study  and  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages. 

Springfield,  O.,  1893. 
Hornemann,  F.     Zur  Reform  des  neusprachlichen  Unterrichts  auf 

hoheren  Lehranstalten.     I.  Heft,  Hannover,  1885 ;  II.  Heft, 

1886. 
Homer,  R.     L'enseignement  des  langues  vivantes  dans  les  colleges. 

Fribourg,  1898. 
Jespersen,  0.     Sprogundervisning.    Copenhagen,  1901.   Also  trans. 

under  the  title  "How  to  teach  a  Foreign  Language,"  by 

Sophia  Yhlen-Olsen  Bertelsen,  New  York. 


228  THE   TEACHING   OF   GERMAN. 

Junker,  H.  P.   Lehrversuch  im  Englischen  nach  der  neuen  Methode. 

Die  Neueren  Sprachen,  I.,  105-118, 167-175,  223-234,  275-281. 
Klinghardt,  H.  Artikulations  und  Horiibungen.  Cothen,  1897. 
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Methode.     Marburg,  1892. 
Klinghardt,  H.     Ein  Jahr  Erfahrungen  mit  der  neuen  Methode. 

Marburg,  1888. 
Klinghardt,  H.     Schlusswort  zu  den  Wendt'schen  Thesen.,  Engl. 

Studien,  vol.  XXVII.,  427-435. 
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369-387. 
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neueren  Sprachen  auf  den  deutschen  Hochschulen.     Heil- 

bronn,  1882. 

Kron,  R.     Die  Methode  Gouin.     Marburg,  1900. 
Kiihn,  K.     Der  franzosische  Anfangsunterricht.     Bielefeld,  1887. 
Kiihn,  K.     Entwurf  eines  Lehrplanes  fur  den  franzosischen  Unter- 

richt  am  Kealgymnasium.  Mittel-  und  Oberstufe.     Marburg, 

1889. 
Lange,  P.     Beobachtungen  und  Erfahrungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der 

Anschauungsmethode  im   franzosischen   Unterricht.     Wien, 

1897. 
Lange,  P.     Zur  Reform  unserer  neusprachlichen  Schulausgaben. 

Leipzig,  1901. 
Laudenbach,   Passy,  et  Delobel.     De  la  me'thode  directe  dans  1'en- 

seignement  des  langues  vivantes.     Paris,  1898. 
Ltittge,  E.     Der-stilistische  Anschauungsunterricht.    I.  Teil,  Leip- 
zig, 1901. 
Mager.     Die  genetische  Methode  des  schulmassigen  Unterrichts  in 

fremden  Sprachen  und  Litteraturen.     Zurich,  1846. 
Mangold,  W.     Der  Unterricht  im  FranzSsischen  und  Englischen, 

191   ff.,   Die  Reform  des  hoheren  Schulwenens  in  Preussen. 

Halle,  1902. 
Mangold,  W.     Geloste  und  ungeloste  Fragen  der  Methodik  auf  dem 

Gebiete  der  neueren  Fremdsprachen.     Berlin,  1892. 


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Mangold,  W.  Methodische  Fragen  des  englischen  Unterriclits,  etc. 
Berlin,  1896. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages.  By  A.  Marshall  Elliott, 
Calvin  Thomas  and  Others.  Boston,  1894. 

Montgomery,  J.  D.  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Languages  in  Bel- 
gium and  Holland.  Special  Reports,  English  Education  De- 
partment, II.,  648  ff.  London,  1898. 

Miinch,  W.,  und  Glauning,  F.  Didaktik  und  Methodik  des  franzo- 
sischen  und  englischen  Unterrichts.  Miinchen,  1895,  2nd 
ed.  (Munch),  1902  (Glauning),  1903. 

Miinch,  W.  Sprachgefuhl  und  Sprachunterricht.  Lehrproben 
und  Lehrgdnge,  1894. 

Miinch,  W.  Vermischte  Aufsatze  fiber  Unterrichtsziele  und  Unter- 
richtskunst  an  hoheren  Schulen.  Berlin,  1896. 

Miinch,  W.  Welche  Ausriistung  fur  das  neusprachliche  Lehramt 
ist  vom  Standpunkte  der  Schule  aus  wiinschenswert  ?  Die 
Neueren  Sprachen,  1896,  IV.,  Heft.  6. 

Miinch,  W.  Zur  Forderung  des  franzosischen  Unterrichts  insbe- 
sondere  auf  Eealgymnasien.  Heilbronn,  1895. 

Ohlert,  A.  Allgemeine  Methodik  des  Sprachunterrichts,  etc. 
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Ohlert,  A.  Das  Studium  der  Sprachen  und  die  geistige  Bildung. 
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Ohlert,  A.  Die  fremdsprachliche  Reformbewegung,  etc.  Konigs- 
berg,  1886. 

Ohlert,  A.  Die  Sprachen  als  Gegenstand  des  Schulunterrichts. 
Die  deutsche  Schule  und  das  klassische  Altertum.  118-131 ; 
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Ohlert,  A.  Methodische  Anleitung  zum  TTnterricht  im  Franzosi- 
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Quiehl,  K.  Franzosische  Aussprache  und  Sprachfertigkeit.  Mar- 
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